Lecture:
We pass to the study of the economic sphere of the life of society. The word economics of Greek origin literally means "housekeeping rules". It is impossible to be limited only by this understanding of economics. In social science, this term is used in two meanings, like economy and science. Let's consider both values.
Economy as an economy
Economy as an economy - is the activity of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic benefits (goods and services), as well as social relations arising in the listed processes.
To meet human needs, you need benefits... They are:
- public (benefits created by the state: roads, communications, health care, education);
- natural or non-economic (goods that are freely available: sunlight, heat, air);
- economic (benefits created as a result of economic economic activity).
- long-term (house, car, furniture, household appliances, that is, those benefits that we can use for several years) and short-term (food that is consumed in full);
- interchangeable - substitutes (coal - gas, tea - coffee, sour cream - mayonnaise) and complementary - set ecops (computer - software, toothbrush and paste, car and gasoline);
- goods (any things that are bought and sold) and services (an action, the result of which is an object of sale and purchase).
In turn, goods and services are tangible and intangible. TO material goods include food, clothing, household appliances, and other things. AND material services are rental, repair of household appliances, transportation of goods, construction, dry cleaning, sewing clothes, etc. The peculiarity of material services is that their results satisfy the material needs of a person. TO intangible goods includes works of literature, sculptures, scientific discoveries and other spiritual and moral values \u200b\u200bthat are clothed in material form. TO intangible services include the services of a tutor, a lawyer, insurance, the activities of educational institutions (schools, technical schools), health care (clinics, health centers), cultural activities (theaters, museums), social protection (social service centers, centers of psychological and pedagogical assistance, rehabilitation centers). Intangible services satisfy the need for knowledge, information, counseling, that is, spiritual needs. Economic activity includes four interrelated and interdependent phases:
production
distribution
consumption
Production Is the process of creating a product: a product or service necessary to meet a human need.
Production example: textile enterprise "Assol" has produced women's clothing worth 1 million rubles.
Distribution Is the process of dividing the produced economic product or income between members of society.
Distribution examples: out of 100% of bread baked in the bakery, 60% is supplied to stores, 35% to the school cafeteria, 5% is spent on own needs. Part of the state budget is allocated for the development of education, part for the construction of roads, part for social payments, part for the maintenance of domestic production, etc.
Exchange Is the process of promoting products from manufacturer to consumer.
There are two forms of exchange: barter and trade. Barter is a natural exchange in which a produced product is exchanged for another product. Trade - uhthen the exchange of the produced product for money, i.e. purchase and sale.
Consumption Is the process of using durable items (dishes, vacuum cleaner, TV) or destroying (food) goods and services.
Economic sphere determines the course of development of other areas. Libraries, museums and theaters, which are institutions of the spiritual realm, are created by economic production. Big businessmen strive to influence the authorities, participate in the activities of political parties. Market economy and private property are important conditions for democracy. The well-being of a person, family and society depends on the economic growth of the state. And the high material incomes of the family, the provision of housing affect the birth rate and the state of health of the population.
Economics as a Science
Economics as a Science studies the development and functioning of the economy, analyzes the problems of effective and rational management of the economy, develops the best ways to solve problems.
For the first time, certain economic knowledge about economic management appeared before our era. But the emergence of economics as an independent science took place only in the 16th-17th centuries. The importance of the activities of scientists - economists is great. Their scientific works are aimed at the economic growth of the state. The main problem of economic science is the limited natural resources necessary for the production of economic benefits and the infinity of human needs. The solution to this problem is a rational choice that assumes the achievement of the maximum result at the lowest cost. You can learn more about this.
Economic science is divided into two sections - microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies the problems of small economic entities - consumers, households and firms. She examines such issues as: the impact of the price / quality ratio on the consumer's choice to buy or not buy a product; the choice of an effective way of managing production and increasing sales of the company, etc. Macroeconomics examines economic processes on a national scale, for example, inflation, unemployment, the economic cycle, the formation of the state budget. Also, this section studies international economic relations.
The main function of economics, like any other science, is cognitive... It consists in collecting, studying, analyzing and systematizing information about economic processes in society and the state. Economic science develops effective methods and means of economic activity ( methodological function) and applies them in practice ( pragmatic or practical function). It is also important predictive function, allowing to anticipate a crisis or growth in the economy. Of course, economics as a science fulfills and educational function, which is the transfer of knowledge about economic theory and practice. Thanks to this function, we have economists, on whose level and qualifications the wealth of our country depends. Among the functions there are also ideological... It consists in the fact that economics substantiates the meaning of economic processes, goals of social development and forms a scientific worldview.
Family economy. The world is changing rapidly, our country faces new challenges, but the foundation of any society - the family - remains unchanged. The family is one of the most ancient social institutions, changing its forms, it was in all known civilizations and cultures. Family life is closely related to the socio-economic, political and cultural reality of the country. The family, like a mirror, reflects all the pros and cons of the policy of a given state.
By investing resources in the family, the state strengthens the productive forces of society, ensures the creation of human capital for the medium and long term, prepares future active citizens who are able to be competitive in the outside world. At the present stage of development of the state, there is a need to understand and rethink changes in the socio-economic, political, demographic and spiritual life of people in order to invent ways to improve the conditions for the functioning of the family, including families with children. On the one hand, it is important not to lose positive experience, on the other, to highlight the problems of a modern family and to identify possible options for their solution.
The economy, as it develops, affects the life of society as a whole, the formation of each individual, the activities of human collectives, the most important of which is the family.
The essence of the family in the economic aspect is comprehensively revealed by its economic functions: demographic, the formation of the physical and mental abilities of children or the future workforce of society; housekeeping, ensuring normal living conditions; the formation of the basic needs and interests of the individual; ensuring the required level of consumer demand for goods and services; saving the necessary funds for purchasing durable goods and ensuring old age; restoration of the working capacity of family members and children employed in the national economy, i.e. recreational function; socialization, i.e. inclusion of family members in the system of social relations of the country (including economic, social, political, national, cultural, etc.); greening, i.e. preparation of family members for their communication with nature, rational interaction between man and nature.
The economic role of the family in a market economy is quite important and complex. In a market economy, the family solves various problems of housekeeping, family business, reproduction of the labor force, ensuring the required level of consumer demand, and the formation of consumer potential. The solution to the problems of a family leading a household and engaged in entrepreneurial activity in a market economy should be sought in:
- - the formation of new needs and capabilities of the family;
- - creating conditions for the development and implementation of the economic functions of the family;
- - ensuring normal living conditions for the family;
- - increasing its socio-economic status.
The socio-economic status of the family is an integral indicator that reflects in family relations the peculiarities of the socio-political structure of the state, its legal foundations, the level of development of the economy, culture and social consciousness.
The household plays a dual role in the modern economy. It is an active subject of market relations, as well as an important link in the economic cycle of resources, goods (services), income. A simplified model of the inclusion of households in the production and distribution cycle and the place of the family in the modern economy is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
Figure:
The development of the family can be considered through the formation of households in the conditions of modern Russia as a subject of a market economic system. It can be conditionally divided into several stages: the formation of the household sector; adaptation of household members to new social and economic conditions; development of this economic form on the principles of market management.
The transformational processes taking place in the country have significantly changed the social, economic and political environment in which households operate. Market transformations have intensified the use of their resources by households for self-sufficiency, satisfaction of needs, and development.
The economic crises of the 1990s and 2000s hampered the development of households, which was reflected in a decrease in the level of wages and a simultaneous increase in the number of unemployed, a decrease in the possibility of obtaining a loan for production and consumer purposes. The unstable situation significantly hampered the investment process, which negatively affects not only the further development of the household, but also the country's economy as a whole.
The solution to the current situation is important, since the household is one of the massive and basic structural elements of the socio-economic system. The steps for the solution could be the improvement of the legal framework governing the activities of households, the easing of the tax burden, the introduction of preferential lending, especially for the implementation of entrepreneurial activities, the improvement of social policy, etc.
Economics as a science and economy. The main questions of the economy. Economics (translated from Greek - "the art of housekeeping") in modern conditions is presented as a multivalued concept. In particular, the economy is defined as:
- - the national economy of a given country, group of countries or the whole world;
- - a set of economic relations in the field of production, distribution, exchange, consumption of products.
Economy - human interaction with the surrounding world, the environment, the specificity and degree of man's mastery of the forces of nature. Economy - the interaction of productive forces and production relations (a set of personal and material factors of production). Economy is the basis, the system of production relations. Economics through the prism of understanding the eccentric model, in the middle of which there is a person (individual) with his knowledge, experience, practice, and the like. The economy as a set of social relations, as the national economy of a given state is the object of study of economic theory.
Economics - it is a sphere of human scientific activity, the main function of which is the cognition and systematization of objective knowledge about the laws and principles of the development of economic reality. Economic science is a system of scientific views on the economic life of society. Economic theory gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe laws governing the development of society, not only explains, but also makes it possible to prevent negative phenomena and mistakes in economic society, i.e. creates an opportunity to predict development, save resources, and help improve the living standards of the population.
The economy as an industrial type of production at a certain stage of its development has passed into the post-industrial type of production, and over time will be recreated in the noospheric type of production. Economy is an objective phenomenon, it really reflects economic ties, principles of development, etc. Economic theory is embodied in economic practice through economic policy.
Economic policy - source of economic power. It acts as a lever of distribution, redistribution, service, maintenance of power, including economic. Economic policy is used to redistribute property rights and to concentrate this property in the entity that implements it. Economic policy is an integral system (complex) of state measures aimed at developing the national economy in the interests of all social groups of society. Speaking about economics and the ambiguity of this concept, we emphasize that economics - a social and economic science did not appear instantly, a basis was needed, a basis for the creation of this social science.
Which of the following is a public good?
1) housing construction for all citizens
2) development of a medicinal product
3) street lighting
4) computerization of all industries
Explanation.
Public goods are goods that have the following characteristics:
1.A sign of non-exclusion - it is almost impossible to exclude a person from the circle of consumers of this good;
2. a sign of non-competitiveness in consumption - the consumption of a good by one person does not reduce the possibilities of its consumption by another;
3. sign of indivisibility - the good cannot be decomposed into separate units.
The correct answer is indicated at number 3.
Answer: 3
One of the tasks of economics is research
1) the influence of the environment on human performance
2) patterns of interaction of social communities
3) the impact of investment policy on the professional composition of the unemployed
4) factors contributing to social mobility
Explanation.
Answer: 3
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
One of the tasks of economics is to develop
1) the country's budget for the next year
2) resource-saving technologies
3) ways to overcome social apathy in society
4) methods of using the "input-output" model
Explanation.
There are two meanings of the concept of economics:
1. Economics is a science that studies the behavior of participants in the process of economic activity.
2. Economy - a way of organizing the activities of people aimed at creating the goods necessary to meet their needs.
In the second option, the task of technological sciences is indicated.
In the third - psychology, sociology.
The activity of economics as a science is illustrated in paragraph 4.
The correct answer is indicated at number 4.
Answer: 4
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
1) opening a new supermarket
2) calculation of changes in demand for mobile phones
3) provision of medical services to the population
4) expansion of the network of hairdressing salons
Explanation.
Calculations are theory, that is, a scientific method, everything else is practice.
Answer: 2
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
Economics studies
1) the consequences of the impact of social production on nature
2) territorial distribution of natural resources
3) methods and results of economic activities of the company
4) diverse human needs and ways to satisfy them
Explanation.
Economic science is the science of economy, management, relations between people, as well as people and the environment, arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange, consumption of products, goods, services.
The correct answer is indicated at number 3.
Answer: 3
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
a guest 08.06.2012 18:58
Answer 4 is also correct, since human needs arise as a result of a process. The main task of the economy is to satisfy the unlimited possibilities of a person in conditions of limited resources. For example, these same marketers study the tastes and needs of consumers. If the economy did not study human needs, then there would be no one to produce for, and such an economy loses its meaning and any profitability. Please correct.
a guest 24.10.2012 21:56
Firstly, if economic science is understood as economic theory, then the correct answer (with a stretch) is -4, and if we talk about applied economic science, then the answer is 3. Sorry, but many questions are just "clumsy" and the answers to them are also ... If the children have to answer them, I envy them
Anastasia Smirnova (St. Petersburg)
The fact of the matter is that the 4th answer is correct "with a stretch". Often in the Unified State Exam in Social Studies one has to mark the "most suitable" option.
Liza Zidiganova 07.06.2013 09:48
I agree the question is incorrect.
Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko
I agree with you, but such questions are encountered on a real exam, so we try to prepare you for them as much as possible.
There are several meanings of the concept of "economics". Which position illustrates the economy as an economy?
1) the production of goods and services necessary for society
2) an explanation of the factors affecting the depreciation of the national currency
3) research into the causes of economic stagnation
4) development of promising models for the development of the service sector
Explanation.
Economy as an economy is a sphere of activity aimed at the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of the necessary goods and services.
Correct answer: 1
Answer: 1
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
There are several meanings of the concept of "economics". Which position illustrates economics as a science?
1) studying the models of the functioning of the stock market
2) provision of educational services to the population
3) development of mobile networks
4) production of a large batch of passenger cars
Explanation.
Economics, as a science, is a set of sciences about the conduct of the national economy, which have developed into an independent branch of social sciences, it is also a set of knowledge about the economy and the related activities of people, about the use of various, most often limited, resources in order to meet the vital needs of people and society; about the relationships that arise between people in the course of business.
Economic reality is the subject of economic sciences, which are subdivided into theoretical and applied.
Theoretical economics is also called economic theory - the science of how people and society choose how to use limited resources.
Answer: 1
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
Explanation.
Economics is a set of sciences about the conduct of the national economy, which have developed into an independent branch of social sciences. Economic reality is the subject of economic sciences, which are subdivided into theoretical and applied. Theoretical economics is also called economic theory - the science of how people and society choose how to use limited resources.
The correct answer is indicated at number 2.
Answer: 2
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
There are different meanings of the concept "economics". What illustrates economics in the meaning of "household"?
1) provision of medical services to the population
2) analysis of the factors of money supply formation
3) identifying patterns of demand formation
4) researching the principles of network marketing
Explanation.
The correct answer is indicated at number 1.
Answer: 1
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
The concept of "economics" can be viewed in two main senses: as a science and as an economy. Economy as "Economy" characterizes the position:
1) studying the consequences of the global crisis for the financial market
2) forecasting the long-term development of the automotive industry
3) calculation of the consequences of joining the WTO for the country's domestic market
4) an increase in demand for the services of beauty spas
Explanation.
Economy - as an economy in the broad sense of the word, that is, the totality of all means, objects, things, substances of the material and spiritual world, used by people in order to ensure living conditions, satisfy needs. In this sense, the economy should be perceived as a life support system created and used by a person, reproducing people's lives, maintaining and improving living conditions.
The correct answer is indicated at number 4.
Answer: 4
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
Economics is viewed in two key senses: "science" and "economy". What position characterizes economics as a science?
1) development of a network of modern spas
2) opening of a plant for the production of dairy products
3) study of trends in the development of the foreign exchange market
4) abolition of import customs duties on gadgets
Explanation.
The correct answer is indicated at number 3.
Answer: 3
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
The concept of "economics" has several meanings. Which of the following characterizes economics as a science?
1) change of production management
2) production of components for cars
3) calculations of production efficiency indicators
4) sale of production technology
Explanation.
Economics has a dual meaning: 1) science 2) economic system
The science of economics explores how, in conditions of limited resources, to satisfy constantly growing needs. The signs of science include calculation, forecast, novelty, consistency, evidence. The correct answer is 3, everything else relates to practical economic activities.
The correct answer is indicated under number: 3
Answer: 3
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
The concept of "economics" has several meanings. Which of the following characterizes the economy as an economy?
1) studying the consumer market
2) production of components for cars
3) calculations of production efficiency
4) forecasting fluctuations in pricing policy
Explanation.
Economics has a dual meaning: 1) science 2) management system, economy.
The economy is a practical activity to satisfy people with material resources. Therefore, the correct answer is 2, everything else relates to economics as a science.
The correct answer is indicated under number: 2
Answer: 2
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
Free goods in economic theory are goods,
1) the production of which is guaranteed and provided by the state
2) which for consumption do not require the rejection of other goods and can be consumed in unlimited quantities
3) available in limited quantities and forcing the consumer to make a choice of preferences
4) produced by private manufacturers at your own peril and risk
Explanation.
Free goods are goods that do not require rejection of other goods for consumption, and, therefore, can be consumed in unlimited quantities.
The benefits produced by the state, provided to citizens on equal terms, are called public.
Available in limited quantities and forcing the consumer to make a choice are economic benefits.
The correct answer is indicated at number 2.
Answer: 2
Subject area: Economics. Economics and economic science
Economy - a capacious and multifaceted concept, different people put different content in it. Having opened any dictionary, both encyclopedic and economic, you can find many of its interpretations. For some, the economy is the economic activity of people, for others it is the household or national economy. You can talk about the economy of the industry, the economy of the enterprise, the economy of the country. In a broad sense economy - the life support system of the country, which solves the problems of production, distribution and consumption of various goods and services necessary to meet the needs of both an individual and a company and the state. Humanity can exist and develop only through the continuous renewal and repetition of production processes. Therefore, the economy is the foundation of any society. Economy arises together with man, exists together with man and in the name of man.
Any science arises as a result of people's attempts to solve certain issues of their life. What has been said fully applies to economic science. Economic science- a branch of knowledge devoted to the study of the rules that allow rationalizing the behavior of an economic entity (person, company, state) when solving their economic problems.
Economic thinking is the same age as human society; already in primitive society, people possessed the rudiments of economic knowledge. The community's complete ownership of all the food obtained by its members with its subsequent equalizing distribution (each member of the community received a part of the obtained product due to his belonging to this community) had no relation to the norms of morality and justice. At this stage in the development of human society, the equalizing distribution of the product was economically efficient, since it made it possible, due to the successes of some community members, to compensate for the failures of others and, in general, to provide the minimum food needs of all. These were, albeit primitive, but already the economic relations of people in society. However, this economic knowledge existed only within the framework of social consciousness.
The oldest documents in which the norms and rules of economic behavior were fixed are laws. The first laws appeared in the states of the ancient East. Of the surviving monuments of the economic thought of civilizations of the Ancient East, the most famous is the code of laws of Babylonia, adopted in the VIII century. BC e. king of Hammurabi. Interesting and very instructive economic commandments are found in the Bible, which contains an interpretation of the life of the ancient Jews and other peoples who inhabited Palestine in the II and I millennia BC. e. However, economic knowledge still did not stand out in the form of a separate form of thinking and economic views constituted separate provisions of works that were broader in their content.
Economics as a science arose in ancient society, its appearance is associated with the names of scientists from Ancient Greece and Rome. The origin of the word itself "economy" originates from the Greek. "Oikos" - house, economy and "nomos" - rule, law. Initially, economics was viewed as the science of home economics, of household management.
Economics emerged as an independent discipline only in the 16th-17th centuries. along with the emergence of the capitalist system. The development and complication of economic ties between families, within enterprises and between those and others, the formation of local, national and international markets, the participation of the state in the economic life of society necessitated wider economic knowledge.
Term "political Economy" appeared for the first time in the 17th century. Its origin was associated with the publication of a book by the French economist Antoine de Montchretien "A Treatise on Political Economy" (1615), in which the author proposed to establish strict government control over the market. The name of the science was made up of three Greek words "politeia" - social structure and the already known "oikos" and "nomos". Political economy was viewed as the science of economic management, but not domestic, but national. Political economy is the science of economic management in the state, the science of the laws of economic development at the state level. The appearance of the new term was not accidental, since it was at this time that the national market of a number of economically developed states was formed.
At the end of the XIX century. a new term appears in scientific circulation - "Economy", the appearance of which was also quite natural, since already from the end of the 18th century. various economic currents began to form in one form or another, claiming that the best for the national economy is non-interference of the state in economic processes. As a result, after the publication of Alfred Marshall's book Principles of Economics in 1891, the term “economics” was adopted in most English-speaking countries.
It should be noted that today economic theory is taught under a title that most of all corresponds to the national language and the characteristics of the socio-economic development of each particular country. For example, in Sweden and Turkey it is "national economy", in Finland - "doctrine of economy", in Greece - "economy", in France - "political economy". The term "political economy" came to Russia from the West and became firmly established for many years. After the revolution, political economy is largely transformed into an element of ideology. Today, economic theory in our country is restoring its status both as a scientific discipline and as the basis for all other economic sciences. The most common name for the discipline in our country is "general economic theory" or "economics".
2) Biological and social in man.
The biological and social in a person are fused together. As a biological being, man belongs to the highest mammals. The biological nature of man is manifested in his anatomy and physiology. As a biological species, a person has a circulatory, muscular, nervous, bone and other systems. Yielding to animals in the development of individual organs, in many natural qualities, man surpasses them in his potential capabilities. Its biological properties are not rigidly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various conditions of existence. Biological in humans does not exist in its pure form, it is socially conditioned, which manifests itself, for example, in changes in the birth rate, infant mortality, etc.
Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with other people. An individual, for some reason torn off from society at birth, remains an animal. Man is not only a product of socio-historical development, but also his subject, changing the environment through his activities. The social essence of a person is manifested through such useful properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.
1. Work force - a person's ability to work, that is, physical and mental capabilities, as well as skills that allow a person to perform certain types of work, while ensuring the required level of labor productivity and quality of manufactured products.
2. Labor market - This is the sphere of the formation of demand and supply of labor (labor services). The majority of the working population obtains jobs and incomes through the labor market. The labor market is regulated by the supply and demand of labor.
As a result of the interaction of supply and demand for labor in the market, equilibrium price labor force and determines the level of employment in the economy.
Features of the labor market
· In the labor market, only labor services are bought, not the individual himself.
Compensation for labor is represented not only by wages, but also by additional benefits (bonuses and monetary benefits, housing costs, social security, the cost of vocational training, cultural and social services, etc.)
· Labor contracts, in addition to the monetary aspect, transactions include: the content and conditions of work, the microclimate in the team and the norms of subordination in management, the likelihood of retaining a job, etc.
4. In the labor market, workers may differ, in particular, in abilities, qualifications, productivity, experience, and jobs differ in the required qualifications and working conditions.
5. When buying labor, the duration of the contracts between the seller and the buyer is essential: the experience of the employee, his labor productivity depends on it; the employer invests in employee training and termination of the contract is detrimental to both parties.
6. There are a large number of structures on the labor market that represent the interests of the state, business, and trade unions. Each of them contributes to the development of the “rules of the game” in the labor market.
7. The labor market deals with a special resource - "Human capital".
Human capital - a stock of intellectual abilities and practical skills obtained in the process of education and practical activity of a person, and in economic science - the ability of people to participate in the production process.
Today it is considered that the most effective investments are in “human capital”.
8. Labor markets are competitive and non-competitive.
Characteristic features of a competitive labor market
1. A significant number of buyers and sellers of labor services.
2. Homogeneous labor services (employees with the same qualifications and labor productivity).
3. None of the buyers and sellers of labor services can influence the rate of wages (no monopoly).
4. Free entry and exit from the market for both parties.
5. Full awareness of labor market participants about supply and demand.
6. The behavior of labor market participants is dominated by economic motivation.
9. Wage - the form of material remuneration for labor (part of the value, created and sold products, services) received by employees of enterprises and institutions.
10.Factors affecting the value of wages
The cost of living goods necessary for the reproduction of labor
The minimum wage level for employees, corresponding to the subsistence minimum
The level of qualifications of workers
Development of economic and social living conditions of the population
· Demand and supply in the labor market
11. Distinguish between nominal and real wages.
Nominal salary - remuneration for work, which is assigned to the employee in the form of a certain amount of money
Real wages - the sum of the goods in life that can be purchased for a nominal fee at a given price level for goods and services
Real wage factors:
The amount of nominal wages
The level of prices for consumer goods and services
· Amount of taxation
12.Salary forms
· Constant (salary) - remuneration for work that does not depend on any conditions.
· Time-based - remuneration for labor depending on the time worked.
· Piecework - remuneration for labor depending on the number of manufactured products
· Mixed forms - remuneration for labor, depending not only on the amount of time worked by the employee, but also on the financial situation of the enterprise, the results of the work of each employee and the firm as a whole.
12. Structure of the wage system
(Payment for skilled labor (Minimum wage (Subsistence minimum)))
The lower limit of wages is living wage,such a level of income that an employee needs to purchase the amount of food not lower than physiological norms, as well as to meet his needs (at the most necessary level) in clothes, shoes, transport, payment for utilities.
UNEMPLOYMENT
1. Employment - This is the activity of people associated with the satisfaction of their personal needs and, as a rule, bringing them earned income.
2. Unemployment - This is a socio-economic phenomenon, in which part of the working-age population cannot find a job and becomes a reserve army of labor. Since most individuals are simultaneously buyers of finished goods and sellers of labor services, unemployment lowers their standard of living, and sometimes quite significantly. Labor services that are not used today are lost by the economy forever.
3. Points of view on the causes of unemployment:
· The reason for unemployment is the excessive demands of the employees themselves, presented to the employer in relation to the amount of their desired wages. Employees who do not agree to work for the offered wages themselves choose the state of unemployment
· The reason for unemployment is too low demand for labor. The state must fight unemployment: by raising government revenues or lowering taxes, the state can increase the demand for labor
· The reason for unemployment is labor market inflexibility. There is some mismatch between the needs of those looking for a job and the needs of employers who are willing to provide jobs
4. Unemployed and unemployed are not synonymous. A person may not work for many reasons: full-time students, pensioners, disabled people, mothers raising children under the age of three, etc. The category of unemployed includes only those who are looking for work. T.N. "Natural" unemployment - 5.5-6.5% of the country's working-age population. In this case, they talk about full employment economy.
5. Types of unemployment:
· Structural - impossibility of employment due to differences in the structure of demand and supply of labor of different qualifications.
· Friction - the inability for a dismissed employee to find a free job in his specialty.
· Cyclic- characteristic of an economic crisis, arises as a result of a decline in production.
· Seasonal- depends on the work at a certain time of the year (agricultural workers, guides).
The sum of frictional and structural unemployment is natural unemployment rate,those. full employment unemployment rate.
6. Forms of unemployment:
· Open(see above)
· Hidden - the employee agrees to part-time or part-time work due to the impossibility of other employment
· Fluid - is associated with periodic "pushback" and "attraction" of the labor force in the labor market
· Stagnant - long-term unemployment, alternating with short periods of temporary, casual work
7. Unemployment rate \u003d Number of economically active population / Total number of unemployed * 100%
8. Unemployment has negative economic and social consequences:
o Underutilization of the economic potential of society, when the real GNP is significantly less than the potential
o Decrease in the standard of living of the population: preconditions for a reduction in the income of employees; those who have lost their jobs receive only unemployment benefits; consumer demand is decreasing, the level of savings
o Loss of professional knowledge and skills, which makes it difficult to find a job
o Moral trauma leading to alcoholism, drug addiction, self
murders, increased crime
Some researchers note that moderate unemployment has a number of positive consequences:
o A mobile "reserve" of labor is formed, which can be used when expanding production
o Restrained unions' demands for higher wages, lowering the anticipated inflation rate
o The labor motivation of workers is increasing, as job security and the fear of losing a job begin to act as an independent incentive to work
· Carrying out the restructuring of professions at the skill level.
· Payment of unemployment benefits.
· Setting the level of the minimum wage.
Psychology
Psychology (from the Greek - knowledge, consciousness, intangible knowledge) is an applied and academic science about behavioral factors, behavior and mental actions, processes in the minds of animals and people.
Scientific psychology is a complete system of theoretical, experimental and methodological properties of human cognition and the study of all mental phenomena of beings; a complete transition from a heterogeneous and inorganic description of these phenomena to their short, laconic and precise definition. To the possibility of careful methodological recording and registration, experimental and theoretical establishment of patterns and all kinds of causal relationships, approval of the satisfaction of the results obtained.
Psychology is a vast area of \u200b\u200bscientific knowledge. It is the patterns and features of the appearance, development and formation of all kinds of mental processes (imagination, sensation, thinking, memory, perception).
The state of the organism (motivation, tension, frustration, feelings, emotions) of the mental properties of the organism (temperament, orientation, inclinations of ability, character) of a person, and the psychological factors of animals is determined by psychology.
What psychology studies in traditional directions:
- Soul (until the beginning of the 18th century A.D.);
- Phenomena of the organism's consciousness (associationist psychology);
- Existing experience of the subject (structuralism);
- Acts of consciousness of the organism (functionalism);
- The main origin of the body's mental activities (psychophysiology);
- The behavior of the body (behaviorism);
- Unconscious perception of the body (fundamentals of psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis);
- The processes of complete and high-quality processing of the information received about the study and recording the results of the experiments (psychology of Genschalt or Genschalt psychology)
- The experience of a person and his consciousness (Humanistic psychology of the body)
Psychology object as a science.
There are many different points of view on what the discipline explores. It must give an answer to the question posed, why a person and his consciousness (or any bearer of the psyche and consciousness) usually, or in a special way (the behavior of animal organisms is studied by the psychology section "zoopsychology" and the category of the science of zoology - "ethology").
Sections of psychology. As a rule, sections of psychology are divided into two large categories: Fundamental: developmental psychology, general human psychology, differential, social and labor psychology, pedagogical psychology, religious psychology, organizational psychology. Applied: family, acmeology, child psychology. And also - gerontopsychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, natural, psychogenetics, creativity, zoopsychology, military esoterics, sports psychology, advertising psychology. A psychologist is a person with a higher psychological education who performs professional, specialized activities in the field of the application of psychology as a science, and the provision of psychological assistance or research in applied psychology. It is worth noting that psychology, at the same time, refers to both social and humanitarian categories of disciplines of scientific knowledge. It is this factor that makes psychology a vast and necessary science.
Natural Sciences
Natural, or natural ("nature" - nature), science is a branch of science responsible for the study of all external to humanity, natural phenomena. The emergence of all natural sciences is associated with the study and application of naturalism to scientific research. The basic principles of naturalism and the natural sciences set themselves the goal of studying and applying all the laws of nature, without introducing into them the laws that are introduced by man, namely, excluding the arbitrariness of human will. The very concept of natural sciences and research was introduced to delimit them humanities and social sciences.
The basis of all natural sciences must be considered natural science - the science of all existing natural phenomena. Thus, the greatest natural scientists, such as Mikhail Lomonosov, Blaise Pascal, Isaac Newton, should be considered the first outstanding representatives of the natural sciences.
Over time, the general direction of all natural science was divided into various scientific directions.
BASIC NATURAL SCIENCES:
Biology - this is the natural science of life, the subject of study is living beings and their interaction with the environment;
Geography - a unified complex of natural sciences that study the geographic shell of the Earth and focus on identifying spatio-temporal patterns;
Physics - a certain area of \u200b\u200bnatural science and natural sciences. Physics studies the most general fundamental laws that determine the evolution and structure of the material world. The basic laws of physics lie at the foundation of all natural science;
Chemistry- one of the most important and extensive areas of knowledge of the natural sciences. This is a branch about substances, structure and transformations, their properties that occur as a result of various chemical reactions, as well as the fundamental laws that these reactions obey;
Astronomy - a natural discipline about the movement, development and structure of celestial systems and bodies, up to the Universe in general. Astronomy, in particular, studies the Sun, all the planets of the Solar System and their satellites, meteorites, comets, asteroids, stars and extrasolar systems, interplanetary matter, nebulae, interstellar matter, galaxies, clusters, quasars, pulsars, black holes, and so on.
All existing modern natural sciences use a mathematical model to describe and concept the phenomena under consideration. Natural disciplines give an accurate definition of the laws that describe the considered natural phenomena.
Also, they consider the formulaic notation of new theories and hypotheses of natural disciplines. As a result, natural sciences provided. Accurate descriptions contain numerical values. Also, thanks to mathematical calculations, any hypothesis can be double-checked and, if necessary, be changed or corrected. Also, natural sciences provide fundamental knowledge, from which all modern sciences are based. Without further ado, we can say that natural Sciences- this is the foundation of the modern generally accepted rules in the scientific world, with the help of which modern society is built and developed.
Natural disciplines are compulsory for study at primary, secondary levels in all secondary educational institutions. Deeper knowledge in natural sciences can be obtained in higher educational institutions.
Social sciencies
Social sciencies - this is a certain group of disciplines trying to define and study absolutely all aspects of the essence and being of a person in his social activities and society. Social sciences differ from art in that they use a proven scientific method and all kinds of scientific standards and factors that provide explanations in the study of humanity and its behavior, including qualitative and quantitative scientific methods of studying social factors.
Social sciences, in teaching and in the objective and intersubjective or structural aspects of society and society, are often referred to as the humanities. This is the difference between the "knowingly" natural sciences, which focus only on the objective aspects of nature and the Earth. Also, sociologists take part in practical and theoretical research, regarding social sciences as a set of individual human behavior in society.
Public or social sciencies study various aspects of human life. Also, this term is used in the singular and in the sense of social science, and in this case it is synonymous with sociology and all social disciplines.
The humanities are very close to the social sciences, which study the spiritual and moral side of a person's life in society. Politics is generally considered the oldest social science. In the Aristotelian sense and concept - the science of the state. In the broadest sense of understanding, political sciences also include those economic and legal disciplines that in some way relate to the state. Social sciencies can in no way claim to be perfect, in which the sciences of nature are more or less different. This factor depends on such concepts:
1) From the greater complexity of various temporary social phenomena, in comparison with a variety of physical phenomena;
2) From the longer-term subordination of the social sciences to various metaphysical speculations,
3) From the modern systematic development of methods for studying new phenomena of the social sciences and methodology;
4) From the influence that their practical interests have on people: religion, prejudice, national passions, prejudice;
To the main social sciences include:
- Economy is the activity of society and the totality of economic relations that have developed in the system of distribution, production, consumption and exchange;
- Psychology - the social science of a variety of factors, behavior and other mental actions;
- Philology - the name of a specific group of social disciplines that studies culture through text;
- Sociology - the social science of society and systems, constituting its functioning, patterns and development, the social institution of communities and relations;
- History - a social discipline dealing with the study of a person (his condition, activity, social connections, worldview, organizations) in the past;
- Culturology is a social science that studies culture and its most general laws of development.
Social disciplines are very similar to the humanities, but explore slightly different factors of knowledge of humanity.
Humanitarian sciences
Humanitarian sciences - a list of scientific disciplines that try to study a person in the field of his social, spiritual, cultural, mental, moral activity. According to the object, the methodology of the subject of the study of the humanities often intersects or equates with the social sciences, while opposing all natural and exact sciences, based on the criteria of the method and the subject.
To key areas of development humanities can be attributed:
1) Linguistics - humanitiesstudying languages. This humanities seeks to study and understand all natural human languages, both in its individual representatives and in the world. In a broad sense, linguistics is part of semiotics. Linguistics tries to study and understand not only existing languages, but also human language in general. The factor of "language" itself is not given to the linguist in a clear and direct observation; directly, one can observe only the facts of speech, or the features of a linguistic phenomenon. Namely, the speech acts of the owners of the living language together with their results. It is these factors of cognition in the humanities that linguistics is trying to study.
2) Literary criticism is a humanitarian science that tries to understand all fiction as a general phenomenon of human culture for the entire period of its existence. Literary criticism appeared during the development of artistic creativity. Key branches of literary criticism: literary criticism, theory of literature, history of literature. In literary criticism, there are many directions, including non-traditional - psychiatric and psychoanalytic;
3) Museology is a scientific humanitarian discipline. It appeared at the end of the 19th century. Musicology studies the history of museums, their social functions, methods and theory of museums;
4) Pedagogy - humanities about training, education and upbringing of a person. Pedagogy forms a personality in a person, educates character and tempers the spirit;
5) Law is one of the types of "levers" for the regulation of social relations; it is also a branch of the humanities. In the thousand-year history of jurisprudence, it has been pointed out more than once that in matters of law it is necessary to avoid precise, clear and universal definitions. It should be noted that there is no generally accepted and precise definition of law in the modern section of the humanities;
6) Philosophy is a humanitarian discipline that studies the most general essential characteristics and fundamental (fundamental) principles of being and the reality of knowledge;
7) Aesthetics - a branch of philosophical and humanitarian disciplines, the main subject of which is the study of the aesthetic perception of the world by man, its reality, its laws and norms, its forms and types;
8) Ethics - implies a philosophical study of morality and morality of humanitarian relations in society. The main values \u200b\u200bof humanity, to a lesser or greater extent, are included in other ethical values. The value of life, truth, consciousness, suffering, willpower, foresight, free will.
It is worth noting that the humanities, often, do not provide reliable factors regarding certain human actions in society. Humanitarian sciences only investigate the causes and factors of a person's performance of certain actions, with the help of which one can formulate his further behavior.
The law of supply and demand - an objective economic law that establishes the dependence of the volumes of demand and supply of goods in the market on their prices. All other things being equal, the lower the price of a product, the more effective demand for it (willingness to buy) and the less supply (willingness to sell). Usually, the price is set at an equilibrium point between supply and demand. The law was finally formulated in 1890 by Alfred Marshall.
Demand
Demand - this is a request of an actual or potential buyer, consumer to purchase a product according to the funds available to him, which are intended for this purchase. Demand reflects, on the one hand, the buyer's need for certain goods or services, the desire to purchase these goods or services in a certain quantity, and, on the other hand, the ability to pay for the purchase at a price that is within the "available" range.
Together with these generalized definitions, demand is characterized by a number of properties and quantitative parameters, of which, first of all, one should single out volume or magnitudedemand.
From the standpoint of quantitative measurement, the demand for a product is understood as the volume of demand, which means the amount of a given product that buyers (consumers) want, are ready and have the financial opportunity to purchase for a certain period at certain prices.
The amount of demand is the amount of goods or services of a certain type and quality that a buyer wants to buy at a given price within a certain period of time. The amount of demand depends on the income of buyers, prices for goods and services, prices for substitute goods and complementary goods, buyers' expectations, their tastes and preferences.
Similar information.
In science, two understandings of the term "economics" (Greek oikonomos - the art of housekeeping) have been fixed: as a science and as an economy.
Economy as an economy is the economic activity of people aimed at meeting their existential, physiological, social, spiritual and prestigious needs. Various economic sectors are engaged in meeting these human needs:
I. Assigning farm - a type of economy in which a person receives the products necessary to ensure life in a finished form, without producing them, that is, extracting them from nature. It includes the following subsectors of the economy:
2) gathering (fruits, berries, mushrooms, nuts, medicinal plants, etc.)
3) fishing
4) beekeeping (obtaining honey from wild bees)
Currently, in developed countries, less than 1% of the population is employed in the appropriating economy. Most often, these activities are a hobby or a kind of leisure.
II. Producing farm - a type of economy in which a person, transforming the natural environment, produces a new, different from the natural, product. Sub-sectors of the producing economy are:
1) agriculture , including:
a) agriculture
b) animal husbandry (in historical science, the term "cattle breeding" is often used, however, a rabbit, a domestic bee, a bird, etc., also raised by humans, are not cattle)
2) industry , including:
a) production of means of production (group A, heavy industry) - that is, the production of machine tools, equipment, buildings, trucks, communications, computer technology, etc.
b) production of consumer goods (group B, light industry) - that is, the production of food, clothing, shoes, furniture, dishes, cars, etc.
In developed countries today, no more than 20-30% of the working-age population is employed in the manufacturing sector. This is due to the scientific and technological progress of the 19th-20th centuries, which made it possible to free most people from the need for physical labor (the appearance of combines, milking machines, automated machines).
III. Non-production sphere - the area of \u200b\u200bproduction of knowledge, services and cultural values. It includes:
1) spiritual production - production of new spiritual values \u200b\u200b(scientific discoveries, works of art, norms of morality and ethics, religious dogmas)
2) service sector (education, healthcare, activities of cultural institutions, passenger transport, hairdressing salons, the legal profession, officials, economists, etc.)
In the 21st century in developed countries, up to 80% of capable citizens are employed in the non-production sphere.
It should be noted that the ever deepening division of labor and, as a consequence, professional delimitation lead to an ever greater class division and, accordingly, to a clash of social interests of various groups of people.
Economics as a Science is a social science that studies the relationship between people and their behavior in the spheres of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods in the context of the infinitely increasing needs of mankind and the limited resources provided by the planet Earth and near-earth space.
From this follows several principles fundamental to economic theory:
1) the object of study for economics is society
2) by studying the relations between people and their behavior, economics fixes the objective psychological laws that work in the economic sphere of public life
3) economics explores a complex process consisting of four stages of human economic activity, and focuses on the production and use of exclusively economic benefits
4) the main problem of economic theory is to resolve the contradiction between the limitlessness of needs and the quantitative and qualitative limitation of the means to satisfy them
Under boon in social science, any resource is understood that can satisfy a specific human need (for example, the need for breathing satisfies the good called "oxygen"). However, not all benefits are recognized as economic. TO economic benefits based on the main problem of the economy, we include only those goods that are in limited quantities. Let us dwell on the stages of the economic process.
Production Is the process of creating new material (goods) and intangible (services) economic benefits. Successful organization of production is impossible without the presence of certain conditions for its implementation, called factors of production. Production is the basis of any economic system, because if the produced goods or services did not exist, money would lose all meaning, because there would be nothing to buy with it.
Distribution Is the process of determining the share of each of the participants in the production in the finished product. In the production of such a product as, for example, bread, not only bakers and the director of the bakery are involved, but also a janitor, electrician, cleaner, lawyer, accountant, etc., albeit indirectly. Distribution is the calculation of the wages of each of them, for the purpose of redemption by the entrepreneur or the state, if it hires an employee who does not own shares in the value of the product. Distribution does not in any way depend on the fact of the sale of a product or service, since labor performed well must be paid regardless of whether the entrepreneur or the state has the ability to sell it. The ban on forced free labor (slavery) is enshrined in the Constitution and the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. The problem of unfair distribution is pivotal for all leftists (communism, anarchism) and some centrist (social democracy) political ideologies without exception.
Exchange - the process of exchanging some goods and services for others. Exchange as an economic phenomenon is necessary for modern society because a person is no longer capable and not interested in providing himself with all the necessary benefits himself. In earlier times, when human needs were more limited, this, however, was possible. In this regard, two types of human economic activity are distinguished:
1) natural economy - the production of goods and services, not for exchange purposes, but for the satisfaction of their own needs (cooking dinner for the family, etc.)
2) commodity economy - production of economic goods for sale
In the modern world, undoubtedly, the commodity economy dominates, aimed at the exchange of goods and services.
The option in which a product changes to a product or service directly, without the participation of money, is called barter ... This type of exchange is quite rare in our society and most often occurs in the case of the conclusion of exchange transactions between entrepreneurs.
If a product or service is exchanged for money, then this is called buying and selling .
It is worth noting that the direct exchange of service for service is not always considered an economic attitude (for example, the mother gave the child a new shirt, and the child helped the mother bring bags of groceries home from the store).
Consumption Is the process of extracting useful properties from a product or service. It should be understood that for different people different goods have different usefulness in the physiological, psychological, social and cultural sense. For example, the usefulness of a shaving cream for a woman is nil, as is a color nail polish for a man. At the same time, a person derives far from all of their useful properties from economic benefits. For example, a social studies teacher may well talk with a student about his personal problems, give him a ride home, or even help move a closet, but all of the above will be of secondary importance in comparison with the transfer of knowledge about society.
Consumption, being the last stage of the economic process, can in some cases be both the longest and the shortest stage. For example, a pie with cabbage is produced in about two hours, it can lie in a store window for up to several days, the chef will receive a salary for making a pie no earlier than half a month later, but it can be consumed in half a minute. Another example is the pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. It was built in no more than fifty years, the workers received salaries from the pharaoh several thousand years ago, but it is still used as a tourist facility to this day.
Scientists identify the following areas of economic activity:
1) microeconomics - the economy of an individual (producer, consumer, owner, employee), family, enterprise or organization
2) macroeconomics - national economy or world economy