Philip IV the Beautiful - Sins of the King - I. Adventures with counterfeit money The French king received the nickname of the counterfeiter

French Lessons I have not read Valentin Rasputin's story "French Lessons", I have only seen a film based on the story about the highest level of humanity in unbearable conditions. But there are lessons in the most ordinary, in educating everyday

Philip also had a second nickname: the counterfeiter. It remained with Philip IV to this day, although many rulers later surpassed him in this craft. The king earned his nickname by being a "political blacksmith from Reims", as the king's brother Charles of Valois used to say. This "Rheims blacksmith" also attracted the attention of Dante Alighieri, who, having fired many sarcastic arrows at the Capetians in the Divine Comedy, devoted several lines to Philip's monetary manipulations and connected Philip's death from boar fangs with the royal counterfeiting of coins. (Philip died on November 29, 1314, as a result of several blows, the first of which overtook him on November 4 while hunting. The legend that he fell from his horse and was attacked by a boar was at one time widespread.)

Already in 1292 begins first sin French king. He introduces a general taxation of his subjects, which also applies to the clergy. The worldly nobility is taxed in the amount of a hundredth of their property (in some parts of the country the tax rises to "To"), the cities pay a turnover tax of one denier per livre, the church is obliged to pay tithes to the royal treasury, not only during the years of war and other emergencies circumstances, but also in normal times.Here is also the "tax from the hearth" - six soles from each household, as well as the "Lombard tax", which applies to Italian merchants and money changers in France, and the "Jewish tax".

Only the "Lombard tax" brought to the treasury in 1292 - 1293 about 150,000 livres.

Without a doubt, this taxation was caused not only by the deplorable state of the finances of the court. Philip armed for the war for Aquitaine and Flanders.

In 1294, Philip's troops invaded Aquitaine, and Edward I sends troops from England to defend his duchy. It was a "silent" war, and already in 1296 the opponents agreed to cease hostilities. The agreement was reinforced by the intentions of the royal families to intermarry. Dynastic marriages often protected nations from bloody clashes, but they were never a guarantee of peace.

And yet, the Gascon War, as this campaign came to be called, was very expensive for France. Until the final peace treaty concluded at Chartres in 1303, French troops were stationed in Aquitaine, which cost the treasury 2 million livres.

Today millions, billions of sums of state budget operations, property of corporations, enterprises and even individuals do not cause our surprise. But at the end of the 13th century, a million livres was an overwhelming, unimaginable amount. The calculations were in livres, salts and denier. 12 denier (d) equaled 1 sol (s), and 20 sols equaled 1 livre (l). The livre was only a counting unit, there were no coins in denominations of 1 livre, the most common coins were denier and noon.

During the time of Philip IV in France, there were two currency systems: the old, Parisian (p) and the new (n). Four old livres equaled five new ones.

A skilled craftsman received at best 18 new deniers (nd) per day, or 27 new livres (nl) per year. The salary of a royal servant of non-noble origin (with the exception of senior officials) was 2-5 soles per day, a knight - 10 soles.

The incomes of senior officials were calculated on an annual basis. The salary of the supreme judge or the highest official of the royal court ranged from 365 to 700 nl. The master of the royal mint, at the same time the king's adviser on monetary affairs, Beten Kosinel, received only 250 nl. The highest paid person in the royal service, Enguerrand de Marigny, received 900 nl a year.

A document drawn up around 1296 gives an idea of ​​what sources were supposed to raise funds to finance the Gascon War:

Nl 200,000 - solid income from royal estates Nl 249,000 - tithe withheld from church income Nl 315,000 - tax on barons (1/100 of property)

35,000 nl - tax on barons in Champagne ("/so)

65,000 nl - tax on Lombards

60,000 nl - tax on the trade turnover of cities (in most cases in the form of a "tax from the hearth")

16,000 nl - tax on transactions between Lombards in France

225,000 Nl - tax on Jews, including fines withheld

200,000 nl - loans from Lombards

630,000 nl - loans from wealthy subjects

50,000 nl - loans from prelates and royal servants

50,000 nl - income from "coin facilitation"

Total: 2,105,000 nl

Some positions (for example, the taxation of the Jews) are certainly overstated. Some are not fully disclosed: the list of cities from which the treasury receives tax revenues is clearly not complete.

Whether this money was received, we do not know, nor do we know for what period these receipts were calculated. Only the church tithe corresponded to the annual amount. From loans in 1295, 632,000 nl were received, and not always and not everywhere in a non-violent way. In general, the royal appeal to help the treasury in the "defensive struggle" was a great success. The fact that it was planned to start the war at the latest in 1292, the people, of course, did not know.

But it was almost impossible to repeat what was done in 1295. The peculiarity of loans is that they must be repaid, in addition, interest. Some cities, having learned the hard way about the financial morality of the crown, were able to reduce the amount of loans placed by royal officials, while refusing their subsequent reimbursement. So, in 1295, from the city of Sainton-Poitou, 44,910 nl came as gifts and only 5666 nl - as loans.

Philip IV and later turned to internal loans, but with less success than in 1295. From this year on, the tax pressure began to tighten so hard that wealthy subjects preferred to refrain from voluntary donations. The French kings never took the terms of payments on loans received seriously. When it came to war loans, lenders somehow had to take note that it was pointless to expect to receive their money while the war was going on.

In the cited document, no doubt, a curious position is the income from "coin relief". Already in 1293, the king had a confidential conversation with Muschiatto, a Lombard experienced in money matters.

Guidi on the advantages and disadvantages of manipulating r coins. Muschiatto did not advise the king to embark on this risky venture, because the consequences of such actions for the economy are negative, the income of the crown ultimately turns into losses. But Philip did not fully understand the needs of the country's economy. His chief advisor on monetary matters, Bathen Cocinel, who was the head of the Paris mint, was also not an expert in this matter. He could only calculate the direct momentary gain to the crown from the reduction in the content of precious metals in the coins. Unlike Muschiatto, he was, moreover, a devoted servant of his master. He had every reason to be useful to his king. At many courts, it was customary to "save" the precious metal in the manufacture of coins. In any case, Cosinel undertook to fulfill the king's instructions to mint a new largest French coin (sol) with a face value much higher than the previous one that was in circulation, while significantly reducing the content of the precious metal in it. Jacques Dimer, auditor of the Paris Mint, submitted to the "higher powers."

The largest coin in circulation at the peak of fraud in 1305 had a face value of 36 denier (instead of 12), which, ultimately, should have caused a corresponding rise in prices. True, this could not happen overnight. The economy in the Middle Ages reacted to changes in the monetary economy much more slowly than today. The king was thus able, by issuing falsified and overvalued coins, to quickly free himself from a third of his debts. Barons and townspeople fared much worse. They got only a third of the rent they expected to receive from the loans granted to the king.

In order to prevent unrest, the king already in 1295 instructed his officials to explain to the people the ongoing monetary policy as a kind of war loan: as soon as the state of war ceases, the degraded and overvalued coin in comparison with its real value will be fully exchanged for new money.

Philip fulfilled this promise in his own way. Until 1306, he removed the coins from circulation five times in order to replace them with new, improved ones, and restore their former state. The edicts, according to which all full-weight coins that were in circulation in the country and outside it, as well as products of gold and silver, were to be exchanged for bad royal coins, supplemented these measures of the crown, which, in addition, appropriated the income from war booty.

The scale of fraud with silver coins can be seen from the following data. Under Saint Louis (1226), coins were minted from a certain weight of silver, the value of which was more than three times lower than the declared record value of coins minted in April 1305 from the same weight of silver.

The income of the royal treasury from monetary fraud in 1296 was indicated by a modest figure of 101,435 nl. Just two years later, between June 24, 1298 and June 24, 1299, it already amounted to 1.2 million nl. The idea that in such a situation it would be necessary to raise the money income of their subjects was absolutely alien to Philip and his advisers. On the contrary, in their view, each soldier for the previous salary should have been three times as diligent, and this could not go on for a long time.

In 1297, Philip's troops marched against Flanders. The northern county, thanks to the industriousness of its people, was considered the richest of the vassal possessions of the French king. And not only the ruler of Flanders, Guy de Dampierre, but also the rich cities of Ghent, Bruges, Lille, which supplied the whole of Europe with their canvas, considered themselves completely independent. Philip had other plans. The attacks on Aquitaine (1294) were primarily intended to force England, a traditional ally of Flanders, to abandon the defense of the county. And the English king Edward I, whose hands were tied by internal affairs, the suppression of the Scottish rebels, gave Philip this pleasure. In 1300, Flanders was "pacified", its peace and order were to be ensured by the French occupying troops.

The looting of the poorly paid French occupiers and the taxes that Philip imposed on the cities led to a general uprising in May 1302. Philip sent 7,000 horsemen and 20,000 infantry to suppress it. In the bloody Battle of Kortrijk, the French troops were utterly defeated. This is the most crushing defeat of Philip for all the time of his reign.

The Parisian court experienced depression and disappointment these days. There is a search for the reasons for what happened, and the indignant king is carefully trying to make it clear that the outcome of the battle may have been influenced by the low salary of well-armed soldiers. Philip does not accept any explanation: the defeat of the rebellious mob cannot be excused by anything. In addition, he has no money: "Tax collectors deceive us at every turn, they collect much more than they hand over to the treasury."

This is the first and only time that the king accuses those in his service of uncleanliness. He knows that his accusations are based on nothing. Treasury revenues from taxes and manipulation of the mint, for the most part, do not go to pay the troops at all. Huge sums are spent on the expansion of the royal palace, palace festivities, generous gifts to foreign rulers to ensure non-interference in the military enterprises of the king.

The minting of counterfeit coins, or better to say, the manipulation of coins, is second major sin Philip the Handsome, which history accuses him of. third sin king of the Capetian family will never be forgiven him and Rome.

In 1296, Philip demands that the French church double its tithe contribution to the treasury to maintain the protection of the kingdom. So far, Philip has never denied the church "responsible gifts", primarily in the form of expanding its land holdings, given that the church tithe in difficult years amounted to from a quarter to a third of all government revenue. However, this time the church demands greater privileges from France. And unexpectedly, even before the start of negotiations, the Roman holy father Pope Boniface VIII intervenes in this matter, forbidding in his bull any indemnity from the church and the benefit of worldly rulers.

The Holy See in those days was by no means an all-Christian institution. For centuries, he fought with the royal houses for power even in this world. His sure weapon so far has been the refusal of a blessing, the threat or actual excommunication. This meant that the "excommunicated" was outside of any worldly and spiritual laws. The power of the papal curse was experienced by Henry IV (1056-1106) and Frederick II (1212-1250).

Boniface VIII, the 199th pope in the history of the church, a power-hungry and irascible man, was elected pope in 1294. This year he turned 76 years old, the age at that time downright biblical.

Philip IV responded to the papal bull by banning any export of gold and precious metals from France. After an exchange of letters in which each side defended its point of view, the pope finally relented and declared that his bull did not apply to France. And then something happened that temporarily suspended the constant, sometimes smoldering, sometimes flaring up like a volcano, the struggle of the sacred throne for worldly power.

Günther Wermusch Counterfeit money scams. From history under deals of banknotes: Per. with him. - M.: Intern.relations, 1990. - 224 p.

sins Philip the Handsome

Seven centuries have passed since that October day in 1285.yes, when the people of Paris greeted a 17-year-old boy. It was Philip from the Capetian family, who, with By solemn ceremony he was anointed to the French throne.

Philip IV , so he could now be called, not for longshowed his royal majesty to the Parisians, he had nothing to say to them. Casting an unseeing glanceover the cheering crowd, he turned around and disappeared, surroundingcourtiers. If anything else is expected of him,let those who are in his service do it. He, Philip, king by the grace of God, will not speak to the mob.

Philip the Handsome, named so soon by his contemporarymenniki, under this name and went down in history.

Philip was the offspring of an ancient family, power and successhis ancestors in the state field were very timespersonal property. The Capetian family led three centuriesstruggle for the unity of the kingdom. The founder of the family wasHugo Capet, who ruled from 987-996. In those timesin the kingdom, the power of local feudal lords is practically nothingwas not limited, they had the right to mint coinsand own mints. Hugo at its bestwas first among equals, coins with his imageminted only in Paris and Orleans.

Since then, a lot of water has flowed. After the wedding in 1284 Do 16-year-old Philip with Joanna, heiress of Navarrethrone (she did not know a word of Spanish) andCountess of Champagne, the number of his pseudo-independent possessions was reduced to four: Flanders, Brittany, Aquita nia and Burgundy. Philip the Handsome was captured loving design to subdue the remaining areas of absofierce power of the king, so that no one else, but only hewas the arbiter of worldly and spiritual affairs throughout France

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tions. Circumstances did not at all favor this.

Conditions for the monetary business, created since the time Louis IX (1226-1270), contributed to savingthe development of French cities. minted withsince then, gold and silver coins (turnoses) -"golden lambs" (named after the one depicted on the coinlamb) and "golden chairs" (named after the depictedon a coin to a king sitting on a Gothic throne) -were money that circulated in neighboring countriesnah, where they were also made.

This, however, was the end of the positive deeds. Philip III father of the young king. lost warwith Aragon, huge debts and unstable southern granitsa - these were the realities of the French kingdom.The income of the crown consisted only of proceeds fromher holdings, from occasional traditional donationsbarons, clergy and cities, when a member of the royal familyLee entered into a marriage union, was ordained a knightdignity, or when it was necessary to prepare and defendhuddle for a crusade.

We know a little about Fi's plans.lipp until the 90s XIII century, about his "inner life"Riya is also silent. Until the end of his days, he remained a soullessly neutral sphinx. generations of historians andwriters racked their brains over what moved him tosuch contradictory actions. Rated amplitudehis assessments are just as great: he is both a greedy despot and progressstrong, ahead of his time ruler.

Duchy of Aquitaine in southeastern Francewalking in vassal dependence on the English corole, and the rich county of Flanders in the north from the verybeginnings were the immediate goals of the unification policykingdom held by Philip IV , politicians who Paradise corresponded to the financial claims of the king.

Money was both the end and the means of his policy.And he did not have enough money until the very last day. Philip needed money to consolidate his power overterritories that belonged to him. A hugeat that time, the bureaucracy, so that the will of the kingimplemented in all parts of the country.

From the services of Philip's advisors III the young king soon refused. He needed energetic people, whollydedicated to his goals, capable lawyers led by Piedrum Floté, Guillaume de Nogaret, and the brilliant, clever Enguerrand de Ma-

rigny. These were people, not always of a purely noble proexodus, giving all their strength to the service of the interests of the crown.

Counterfeiter

Philip also had a second nickname: the counterfeiter. chik. It belongs to Philip IV to the present day, thoughmany rulers later surpassed him in this craft.The king earned his nickname by being a "political blacksmith from Reims", as the king's brother used to say.Karl Valois. This "Reims blacksmith" attracted attentionand Dante Alighieri, who, having released in the Divinecomedy" a lot of sarcastic arrows against Kapetingov, devoted several lines to Philip's money manipulations and connected Philip's death from boar tusks with royal forgery of coins. (Philip died November 291314 as a result of several blows, the first of whichovertook him on November 4 while hunting. The legend that hefell from a horse and was attacked by a boar, was inwidespread at the time.)

Already in 1292 begins first sin Frenchking. He introduces universal taxation of hissubjects, extending to the clergy. Worldly nobility taxed in the amount of a hundredth of their property (in some parts of the country the tax is increased to "To"), citiespay a turnover tax of one denier perof every livre, the church is obliged to pay in queenstithing of the treasury not only during the war years and in otheremergency, but also during normal times.Here is the “tax from the hearth” - six soles from each to farming, as well as the "Lombard tax", which applies to Italian merchants and money nyal in France, and the "Jewish tax".

Only the "Lombard tax" brought the treasury in 1292 -1293 about 150,000 livres.

Without a doubt, this taxation was caused not onlydeplorable state of finances of the yard. Philip armedXia for the war for Aquitaine and Flanders.

In 1294, Philip's troops invaded Aquitaine, and Edward I sends troops from England to defend hishis duchies. It was a "silent" war, and already inIn 1296, the opponents agreed to end the war actions. The agreement was reinforced by the intentions-

mi royal families intermarry. Dynastic marriagesoften guarded peoples from bloody clashes, but theyhave never been a guarantee of peace.

Nevertheless, the Gascon War, as it began to be calledThis whole campaign was very expensive for France. Until the final peace treaty concluded at Chartres n 1303, French troops were stationed in Aquitainetroops, which cost the treasury 2 million livres.

Today, millions, billions of transactionsstate budget, property of corporations, beforeacceptances and even private individuals do not surprise us. niya. But at the end of the thirteenth century a million livres - it wasoverwhelming, unimaginable magnitude. The calculations went tolivres, salts and denier. 12 denier (d) equaled 1 salt (s),and 20 soles - 1 livre (l). The livre was onlyunit of account, there was no coin worth 1 livre,the most popular coins were denier and noon.

During the time of Philip IV in France there were twocurrency systems: old, Parisian (p) and new (n).Four old livres equaled five new ones.

A skilled craftsman received a day at his best.tea 18 new deniers (nd), or 27 new livres (nl) per year.The salary of a royal servant of non-noble origin (with the exception of senior officials) islo 2-5 soles a day, a knight - 10 soles.

The incomes of senior officials were calculated per year.basis. Salary of the chief judge or higher chinovnik of the royal court ranged from 365 to 700 nl.Master of the Royal Mint, at the same timeCounselor to the King in Monetary Affairs, Bathen Cocinelreceived only 250 nl. highest paida man in the royal service Enguerrand de Marigny received 900 nl a year.

A document compiled around 1296 gives an idea of ​​what sources were supposed tofind funds to finance the Gascon War:

Nl 200,000 fixed income from royal estates Nl 249,000 tithe withheld from church income315,000 nl - tax on barons(1/100 property)

35,000 nl - tax on barons in Champagne ("/ so)

65,000 nl - tax on Lombards

60,000 nl - tax on the trade turnover of cities (in mostcases in the form of a "tax from the hearth")

16,000 nl - tax on transactions between Lombards in France

225,000 Nl - tax on Jews, including fines withheld

200,000 nl - loans from Lombards

630,000 nl - loans from wealthy subjects

50,000 nl - loans from prelates and royal servants

50,000 nl - income from "coin facilitation"

Total: 2 105 000 nl

Some positions (for example, the taxation of the Jews),definitely overpriced. Some are not fully disclosed:list of cities from which the treasury receives taxreceipts, clearly not complete.

Whether this money was received, we do not know howwe also know for what period these receipts werecalculated. Only the church tithe correspondedannual amount. From loans in 1295 it was received632,000 nl, and not always and everywhere non-violentway. In general, the royal appeal to help the treasuryin the "defensive struggle" was a great success. About,that it was planned to start the war at the latest in 1292year, the people, of course, did not know.

But it was almost impossible to repeat what was done in 1295. The peculiarity of loans is that they must be returned, paying, moreover, interest. Some cities, learned the hard waycommingled with the financial morality of the crown, were able tofight to reduce the amount of loans placed by royal officials, while refusing their subsequent reimbursement. So, in 1295 from the city of Sainton-Poitou 44,910 nl received as gifts and only5666 nl - as loans.

Philip IV and later turned to domestic loans, but with less success than in 1295. From this yearthe tax press began to twist so hard thatwealthy subjects preferred to abstainfrom voluntary donations. Payment terms forreceived loans French kings never were taken seriously. When it came to war loans, creditors, one way or another, had to acceptDeny that count on getting your money as long as there is a war, it makes no sense.

In the cited document, no doubt, a curiousthe position is the income from "coin relief".Already in 1293, the king had a confidential conversation withexperienced in money matters, the Lombard Muschiatto

Guidi on the advantages and disadvantages of manipulationg coins. Muschiatto advised the king not to go intois a risky undertaking, for the consequences of suchactions for the economy are negative, crown revenues ineventually turn into losses. But Philip is not too understood the needs of the country's economy. HisChief Counsel for Monetary Affairs Bethen Kosinel,who was the head of the Parisian mint, alsowas not an expert in this matter. He could only calculate the direct momentary gain of the crown from a decrease incontent of precious metals in coins. In contrastfrom Muschiatto, he was, moreover, a devoted servanthis master. He had every reason toto be useful to your king. At many courts, it was customary to "save" the precious metal when making coin making. In any case, Cocinel took up fulfillment of the king's instructions to mint a new largestFrench coin (sol) with a face value of 3significantly higher than the former, which was in circulation, while significantly reducing the content of precious leg metal. Jacques Dimer, auditor of the Paris Mint, submitted to the "higher powers."

The largest coin in circulation during the periodthe peak of fraud - in 1305, had a common nouncost of 36 denier (instead of 12), which in the endaccount should have caused a corresponding increase in prices. True, this could not happen overnight.The economy in the Middle Ages reacted to changesand money economy much more slowly than in our days. The king was thus able through the issuance falsified and inflated in comparison with real the value of coins to quickly get rid of a third of their debts. Barons and townspeople fared much worse. They got only a third of the rent they hoped to receive from the zai provided to the king mov.

In order to prevent unrest, the king already in 1295 instructed his officials to explain to the peoplethe current monetary policy as a kind of militaryloan: as soon as the state of war ceases, degraded and inflated compared to the real value the coin will be fully exchanged for new money.

Philip fulfilled this promise in his own way. Before 1306yes, he withdrew coins from circulation five times in order toreplace them with new, improved ones, and restore the former

37

her condition. Decrees according to which all full-weight coins that were in circulation in the country and outsideher, as well as products made of gold and silver, were subject toexchange for bad royal coins, supplemented by these meacceptance of the crown, which, in addition, appropriated andincome from war trophies.

The scale of fraud with silver coins can be seen from following data. Under Saint Louis (1226), coins were minted from a certain weight of silver, the costwhich was more than three times inferior to the declaredrecord value of coins minted in April 1305years from the same weight of silver.

Income of the royal treasury from monetary fraudin 1296 was designated a modest figure of 101,435 nl.Just two years later, between June 24, 1298 and June 241299, it already amounted to 1.2 million nl. The thought thatin such a situation, it would be necessary to raise the money tothe moves of his subjects, was absolutely alien to Philipand his advisers. On the contrary, in their view, each a soldier for the previous salary should have been three times as diligent, but it could not go on like that for a long time.

In 1297, Philip's troops marched against Flanders. North County, thanks to the industriousness of itsclan was considered the richest of the vassal possessions French king. And not only the ruler of FlandersGuy de Dampierre, but also the rich cities of Ghent, Bruges, Lille,supplying all of Europe with their canvas, considered themselvesquite independent. Philip had other plans.Attacks on Aquitaine (1294) primarily preslegave the goal of forcing England, a traditional allyFlanders, give up the protection of the county. And English king edward I whose hands were bound internallyour deeds, the suppression of the Scottish rebels, Phillip's pitchfork is a treat. In 1300 Flanders was "pacified", her calmness and order should were to provide for the French occupying troops.

The looting of poorly paid French occupiers and the taxes that Philip imposed on the cities, under led to a general uprising in May 1302. On hissuppression, Philip sent 7 thousand horsemen and 20 thousand soldiers. foot soldiers. At the bloody Battle of Kortrijk, the French the troops were utterly defeated. It's the most crusherPhilip's worst defeat throughout his reign.

The Parisian court experienced depression these daysand disappointment. There is a search for the causes of what happened, and not-

the king is cautiously trying to make it clear that they may have been influenced by the low pay of well-armed soldiers. Philip don't acceptno explanation: defeat from the rebellious mobnothing can be excused. In addition, he has no money:"Tax collectors deceive us at every turn,they collect much more than they hand over to the treasury.”

This is the first and only time that the kingfrosts in the uncleanliness of those in his service.He knows that his accusations are based on nothing.Treasury income from taxes and manipulation of the monetaryyard for the most part go not at all to pay the howlscam Expansion of queens costs huge sumspalace, palace festivities, generous gifts to foreign rulers to ensure non-interferencestvo in the military enterprises of the king.

The minting of counterfeit coins, or better to say, manipooling with coins is second major sin PhilipBeautiful, which history accuses him of. third sin king of the Capetian family will never be forgiven him and Rome.

In 1296, Philip demands that the French church double its tithe contribution to the treasury to maintain protection. kingdoms. So far, Philip has never refusedchurches in "reciprocal gifts", primarily in the form of racesexpansion of its land holdings, given that the churchesnay tithe in difficult years ranged from a quarterup to a third of all government revenues. However, thissince the church demands great privileges from France.And unexpectedly, even before the start of negotiations, intervene in this matter roman holy father pope Boniface VIII , ban giving in his bull any indemnity from the churchand favor of worldly rulers.

The Holy See in those days was by no means inse-Christian institution. For centuries he fought againstleftist houses for power in this world. His faithfulweapons so far have been refusing blessings, threateningor actual excommunication. This meant that"excommunicated" found himself outside of any worldly and spirituallaws. Henry experienced the power of the papal curse IV (1056-1106) and Friedrich II (1212-1250).

Boniface VIII , 199th pope in church history, power a loving and quick-tempered man, was elected pope in 1294. He turned 76 this year.age at that time is downright biblical.

On papal bull Philip IV responded by banning any export of gold and precious metals from Francetions. After an exchange of letters in which each side defended its point of view, the pope eventuallydrank and declared that his bull against France was not distributedwanders off. And then something happened that temporarilynovilo constant, now smoldering, now flaring up, like volcano, the struggle of the holy throne for worldly power.

Bishop of Parma

Bernard Sesse, Bishop of Parma, staunch supporterPope, repeatedly spoke out against despotism and his the power of Philip, thereby winning applause notonly in Rome. He spoke of Philip's coins as follows: “This money is cheaper than mud. They are impure and falsehigh; unrighteously and dishonestly acts the one on whose willthey are minted. In all the Roman curia I don't know anyonewho would give even a handful of dirt for this money.

These speeches evoked a lively response from his flock.But they reacted in their own way in the palace. Philip couldn't standno opponents, he was only waiting for a convenient occasion thatto silence your opponent. Sesse soonhimself gave the king such an opportunity when he invested with the dignity of God's viceroy in Francela compared with an owl, "the most beautiful of birds, whichgood for nothing ... Such is our king, the most beautiful a gray-haired man in the world, who, however, can do nothing but see those around him. It was open lèse majesty, stateexchange. At the end of October 1301, Bernard Sesse was takentaken into custody and brought to trial. It was a kindny process. In witnesses confirming seditiousstatements of the accused, there was no lack. He was even deprived of a protector. Yet Sesse was a messengerdads. In any case, the decision of the court was very lenient.There were also such witnesses who urged not to accepteverything is serious. Bishop - an elderly man with a nastya character who, after taking a sip from a bottle, sometimes blurts out too much. Others, not without irony, said that he was simple"up to holiness." The verdict took into account "mitigatingcircumstances". Philip actually limited himself to the fact thatdeprived Sesse of his episcopal dignity and property worthin 40,000 nl, which "with the consent" of Sesse was transferred

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one of the monasteries. Your money Sesse never againdid not see, although seven years later he was returnedepiscopal dignity.

The chronicles report that Philip was not pleased with thecessom, and not without reason. He needed a church tithe.

The reaction of the Holy See did not force itselfwait. Already on December 5, 1301 (the sentence was datedend of November) the papal ambassadors brought the bull of Boniftion (this message under the eloquent title "Listen, son" was prepared even before the start of the process againstSesse), in which he called himself the supreme judge.Boniface notified the "king of the French" about the liquidation all the privileges that the French court had in mutual relationship with the Holy Church. Most painful for Philip was the annulment of the negotiatedin 1297, Rome had the right to tax the French churchwith a decimal tax without the consent of the pope. Philip was annoyed and contained in a very voluminous bull onfall for his politics. It was also about his prohibitions.for export, about the choice of royal advisers, aboutleftist decrees, on financial policy and manipultions with coins. Boniface, however, refrained from in order to directly call Philip IV counterfeiter.

In later sources devoted to this historical combat, it is invariably reported thatPhilip in February 1302 ordered publiclyburn the papal bull. However, compelling evidenceis not given, besides it is generally unlikely. Philip instructed to sort out this matter to his firstMinister Pierre Flot, who informed about theholding the bull only a narrow circle of advisers. It stays elk unknown above all to the most faithfulassociates of the pope from the royal environment. Instead ofdetailed notice The navy summed up the Romanreproaches in one phrase: “Know that you are our subject and inworldly, and in spiritual matters. Boniface did not write like this, but it followed from the content of his epistle. And exactlyby this phrase the papal bull was to be judged onAssembly of the Estates General April 10, 1302

This April day is a very curious date inFrench history. Invited for the first time appointees not only of the nobility and clergy, but also of the third estate in the person of the townspeople. This move provided

trouble for the king, and the Fleet, in gratitude, wasthe title of keeper of the great royal seal.

The old man who sat on the Holy Throne, recognizingabout the decision taken at the meeting of the three estates in Parizhe, was beside himself. He convenes a church council, onwho arrives only half of the French bishops (39 out of 79), and curses the Navy, "whom God alreadypunished with partial physical blindness and complete blindnessthat spiritual one. The fleet is called the second Ahitopheles,it is also said that he will share the fate of the latter.Pope's prediction very soon confirmed: Pierre Flo those died on July 11 of the same year in the Battle of Kortrijk. What impression did his death make on the French bishops, we do not know.

The successor to the Fleet was the same energetic and eveneven more scrupulous in carrying out the will of the kingGuillaume Nogaret, who was soon granted tworyanism. Maurice Druon in his book The Curse of Firecharacterizes this lean dark-haired manwith restless eyes as merciless and "inevitablytimid as a scythe of death "the servant of the king, who sweepshe went to hell and was devilishly persistent in carrying out his master's policy.

On November 18, 1302, a new bull of Boniface follows,in which he develops the postulate that any beingthe relationship between heaven and earth is subject to the Holythrone: “We declare, proclaim and determine that every person is necessarily a subjectRoman pontificate, if his immortality is dear to him souls."

In addressing this message, Boniface overestimatedits forces, although it is sustained in a much more peacefulin a loving tone compared to the previous bull. Wu FiLippa had influential allies in Italy as well. This is thede all representatives of the family of Counts Colonna, whose namethe society was sequestered by Boniface in favor of the membershis family, greedy for power and wealth. In its turn,Guillaume Nogaret knew from Colonne of the accusations leveled against Boniface during an unusual period. abdication of his predecessor Celestine V. The content of the accusations boiled down to the fact that Boniface was allegedly subject to heresy, sexual perversions and other gim sins. Hardly any of this list the veil of reality. However, Philip's lawyers would whether subtly experienced in scholastic-crook-making

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battles and the phrase of Boniface, which he reallycould say in a fit of temper: "I'd rather be a dog,than a Frenchman, ”they turned against him:“ The dog no soul, but the very last Frenchman has one.In other words, Boniface does not believe in immortality.souls. He is a heretic."

June 13, 1303 at a meeting of representatives of the nobilityclergy and clergy in the Louvre, many similar finds were announced, which gave rise to the proposaldecision on the convening of a church council, which was todiscuss the heresy of Boniface. The question of where and whenconvene a council, remained open.

Boniface, meanwhile, writes another bull,which on September 8 is delivered to Paris and betrayedannouncement. The content of the bull is as follows: Philippe Franctsuzsky excommunicates from the church, because he banned the Frenchthe French prelates to go to Rome, gave asylum to the apostate Stefano Colonna and lost the confidence of his subjects.

On the same day, the king speaks confidentially with the templethe bearer of his press: “Nogare, this message is not to be no one knows wives. We do not limit you in anything,but the pope must appear before an ecclesiastical council.”Guillaume Nogaret did not need many words, but a handshaketie, which the king honored him with, meant that fatethe king is now in his hands. Nogare wastes no timehe chooses the most reliable and bravest knightsand together with them goes to Anagni, the personal possessiondaddy. There, with the support of the Colonna family, he actuallyChesky captures the 86-year-old dad. Looks like Bonnie facies was subjected to very cruel treatment. In all In any case, four weeks after the residentsAnagni free him, he dies in the Vatican. But the fading strength of Boniface is enough to excommunicatefrom the church of Guillaume de Nogaret.

Dante finds bitter words to describe the attackin Anagni, qualifying it as a murder, although Bonifacies does not arouse much sympathy in him.

In the struggle for power with Rome, the winner is Philip IV . But at what cost? IN 1301 -1303 histhe treasury does not receive church tithes, and this is a loss of almost 800,000 nl. Benedict XI , newly elected pope, configuredpeacefully and ready to consent to the collection of the Frenchthe king of church tithes, provided thatPhilip on holy scripture will take an oath of innocence

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to the assassination attempt at Anagni. Philip swears, but this false oath.

200th pope, Benedict XI , was only destined to remain on the Holy Throne for a year. His successor wasPhilip's protégé, Archbishop of Bordeaux Bertrand de Gault, who was elected pope in 1305 thanks to the efforts of the French crown and took the name of Clement V . in four year, he moves his residence to Avignon, where the popesspent in the so-called "Babylonian exile" [according to analogies with the captivity in Babylon of the people of Israel Navujo donor (597-538 BC)] until 1377.

December 23, 1305 Clement V frees Philipfrom the curse of Boniface and gives him remission of sins, associated with numerous extortion of churchmoney and manipulation with coins. He exaltsby the grace of God the King of France as "the brighteststar among all Catholic Monarchs." Philip,by no means deaf to flattery, responds by declaringprotector of those bishops and abbeys againstto whom Clement V was too cruel, but hebegins to collect taxes from them and forced loans. The king easily distributes reciprocal gifts - letters of granting privileges and freedoms - and just as easily about themforgets. His lawyers must take care of the lazykah, they know their stuff.

Behind the third sin - an attack on the Holy Pretable - directly follows fourth.

Tragedy of the Templars

It's been a year since peace reigned. August 18, 1304 howlPhilip's ska was defeated at Mons-en-Pevel by the militia Flanders, and a year later (in June 1305) he was with her a peace favorable to France was concluded. An indemnity of 400,000 nl was imposed on Flanders. Duchy of Rethel (not related to Flanders) should have been annuallyto pay the French crown 20,000 nl. Until,until the indemnity is paid, Lille, Douai and Bethuneremain occupied. And yet Flanders succeeded,recognizing the supreme power of the French king, to defend its semi-independent status.

A year after the signing of the peace, His Majesty "thememperor of the Kingdom, the most enlightened monarch in Europe, anointed of God, heir to Charlemagne and Lu-

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Dovika the Holy, Viceroy of God in France "decided the faithrush to coinage " good money". It was announcedheralds sent to all provinces. Silver weight coins issued from October 1, 1306, increased.Thanksgiving prayers were served in the churches, but the ecstasy they did not gather crowds of women. Too long time subjects were subjected to powerful pressure not to feel immediately a new beat.

It is impossible not to recognize the following. Cost increasemoney, obviously, happened quite suddenly. People,who have acquired property or received loansat a time when the value of money was overvalued, mustwere now paying interest and repaying debts a day gami, which cost only a third of what they recently minted.

Chroniclers report that Philip loved, dresseda commoner, to get into the crowd, to walk around the bazaars,listen to what people are talking about. They didn't stop himeven reports of what happened here and thereorders. One day, near the castle of the Knights Templar, his find out, and the king finds himself in a dangerous position. Threats are heard, fists are clenched, the king is surrounded, at first cautiously, then more and more confidently the crowd closes Around him. Philip the Handsome turns pale, stands motionless zheniya, his gaze freezes.

Salvation comes at the last moment. Appearsa group of people in white capes, with red crosseson the chest. With their shields they hold back the crowd,the resulting passage the king marches to the castle thereplayers who gave him refuge.

Later, the king learns that the unrest has gripped others.cities, including Chalons. In Paris, the mob burstand the home of the Prefect, Étienne Barbet, and kidnapped him.

"Most Christian Emperor of France" ceases to take people.

At last he did a good deed, and his people respondan attempt on the life of an infallible majesty. The advisers of the king and those responsible for underkeeping order.

Philip cruelly avenged the Parisians for theirtal king, unheard of insolence. On the streets indiscriminately seized men whose inquisitors tormentedtortured to obtain a confession of belonging to the bunmerchants, after which they were hung up on the gallows installed at the city gates.

Philip's advisers have to go headlong into work to find ways to regulate in the form of laws effects of coin weighting on the credit systemcountry and land payments. It took a lottime. To deliver the instructions of the authorities to all the provinces, messengers needed weeks, and from the provinces orders were sent to all corners of the state.

In turbulent days on the eve of the introduction of a new moneyon a large scale, Guillaume Nogaret had the idea thatin what direction can the fermentation of the people be directed. In allIn any case, it was Nogaret who played the main role in the deployment the expulsion of the Jews from France in 1306. Jew Russian pogroms occurred earlier, under the Capetians. Were mass burnings of people were carried out on the Jewish island, located on the Ile de la Cité.

This time the treacherous minister staked on a specialhatred of Jews, especially moneylenders and money changersfrom among them, ordinary people who considered the latter involved in the financial impoverishment of the kingdom. propertyJewish property is confiscated, debt obligations are transferredgo into the possession of the crown and countless corrupt officials. Treasury revenues are relatively small.Until 1310, this action brings about 200,000 nl, althoughin wartime, it was sometimes possible to “squeeze out” from the Jews thatthe same amount per year.

A year later, on October 13, 1307, an event followed that divided historians into two for centuries. hostile camps - a blow to the Knights Templar.

Order of the Knights of the Temple of Jerusalem was founded in 1119 to protect the pilgrims and shrines of Palestineus. Members of the order, among other things, had to givevow to avoid all contact with women, evenwith closest relatives. They devoted themselves entirely self in the service of Jesus Christ. 20 thousand knights of the order,dressed in white robes with a red cross on the grdi, perished in the crusades, bringing their orderuntold wealth. For his service, the order collectedgold from all over Europe. In addition, the order was largerour landowner. Soon the top of the order found himnew field of activity. The Knights Templar has becomeinto the biggest banker of his time. powerfulthe most important of the monarchs of Europe were his clients. When- something very tough for members of the order of self-restraint would drastically softened, and borrowed from the Voi-

current of habit and outlook. The expression "swears like Templar" became a proverb in Paris.

Philip IV , like its predecessors, longyears considered the Templar castle in Paris as"his" bank, which was engaged in financial affairsyard. Treasures of the French crown were also kept at the Templars.

Although the Knights Templar obeyed the exclusivebut the Holy See in Rome, he turned out to be gotoyou enter into an alliance with Philip in August 1303against Boniface VIII , "the one who now leadsRoman Church", speaking on the side of the king even thenyes, when in Rome they demanded the removal of Philip.

King Philip IV repaid for the services of the Templarsblack ingratitude. Three years later - modernki believe that the plan arose when the knights of the orderthe Templars saved the king from the onslaught of the crowd and deliveredhim to the castle of the Templars and he was stung by the magnificentthe luxury of its interior decoration, - the king of ideas is probably the dirtiest intrigue of his timeboard. In July 1306 the king insisted thatthe Pope recalled the Grand Master of the Order of Jacques de Molayfrom Cyprus (where the headquarters of the order was located) and tosent him to France, where he was to answer before court. Clement V is said to have given his consentprovided that he alone can decidethe fate of the Templars, who in any case should be extradited to the Vatican.

October 13, 1307 by the will of the king is heldlightning action to capture the castle of the Templars in Palower. 140 Templars who were there were arrested. The next day, interrogations and torture began.The least they had to admit tothe Templars, who were tortured by sophisticated torture, are in contactswith evil spirits. If someone at the trial refusedconfessions torn out under torture, then immediately fellinto the hands of the executioner. In 1309, 54 knights of the order wereburned alive as apostates. Pope Clement V in 1312 he dissolved the Knights Templar in all countries. In March 1313, the greatmaster of the order. At the same time, his pronounced curse -Pope Clement, Guillaume Nogaret and the king will die withinyear - comes true. Clement dies April 20, 1314,Nogare dies four weeks later, poisoned by Shim Templar. Philip will live a little longer released-

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nogo master's term. He is overtaken by a series of apoplexy strikes, and he dies on November 29, 1314.

Compared to what the Templars once didlali for the french crown, financial results on the forcible removal of the order for Philip were more than modest. Clement V who commented on the executionsTemplars with the words: “The king makes you remember the cro the toast of his ancestors, "opposed the desire of Philip create a new order under his leadership, which meant the transfer of all property of the defeated order of the racessharpening king of France. Clement managed to return the property of the order to his hospital. Winning royaltreasury from the defeat of the Knights Templar amounted to about quarter of a million livres.

The defeat of the Knights Templar is probably the mostthe grave sin of Philip the Handsome.

None of the unseemly actions takendid not benefit the kingdom. Torn from the Flemingsan indemnity of 400,000 livres did not cover the cost ofwar with England and Flanders, which amounted to at leastleast 4 million nl. By expelling the Jews, Philip blocked the a reliable source of annual income to the treasury. Face The vision of the Knights Templar deprived him of a reliable financial system and creditor.

The purses of the barons also remained inaccessible totreasury: taxation of the nobility was carried out onlyin wartime. Clement V in 1310 characterized French kingdom as a "money vacuum". Philip had another way out: the deterioration of gold coins,which have remained untouched until now. He administers since January 22, 1310 worthy instead of coins 44 livres to be minted from the same weight of gold55 livres, 10 soles and 4 denier. It was about the most widespread coins - florins with the image of yag Nenka, who were in circulation in wealthy circles, among large merchants, especially Lombards, who, undersubjected to repressions and arrests during the war years, moreoffered no resistance.

A year later, the king makes his last attemptreplenish your treasury through fraud with coins. I He announces that the bourgeois is a 1 denier coin;By new system appeal now has dignity1 denier according to the old Parisian system. As we remember, the ratio between old and new money isLalo 5:4, now the citizen had to pay everywhere

at 20 % more. Probably, this maneuver was the kingowes the second most powerful man in France to Angrran de Marigny, on which a year later Philippeput a solution to all financial issues.

It seemed that the people were just waiting for a new scam. Oncea storm of protest broke out, and in 1313 Philip was inforced to retreat.

The death of King Philip (November 29, 1314) took awayWithhimself and what all his life supported his absolutepower: his divine mission. The property of the voicetreason becomes the betrayal of the two daughters-in-law of the king. Ordernew Jacques de Molay soon followed by the execution of the lovers of the daughters-in-law, who also belonged to the highest nobility . The divine halo over the royal house faded finally.

Geoffroy of Paris in 1313-1319 compiled witha chronicle of 8,000 verses describing the ytiya 1300-1316 years. Geoffroy, spiritual person, fromlay in it, observing the necessary caution, the opinioncommon people about their king: "You took a hundredth,you took out the fiftieth, you took out so many loans, king...In your bins must be the money of the Templars, Jews andusurers. You taxed the pawnshop tsev. Never before have kings treated so badly our people ... On his deathbed, the king was seized with remorsenie ... In his time, the whole of France was sick, and the peoplethere is little reason to mourn his passing."

Like many of his contemporaries, Geoffroy explainsthe actions of the king by the sins of his advisors. Even BernardSesse, until his arrest, believed that it was the advicenicks are responsible for Philip's erroneous policypa. At the Treason Trial by Bernard SesséOn November 1301, one of the witnesses testified,that "he often heard the bishop declare thatthe king is on the hunt, when it would be better for him to sit in the boxleftist council. He doesn't have good advisers, peopleThe king is doing dubious services to justice.

Such judgments have always been in circulation among the people.With regard to Philip, they are partially justified. Tawhich of his subjects, like the Navy, Nogaret, Marigny, howpersonalities were head and shoulders above Philip. But they knewits program and contributed with all their might to its implementationniyu in life. The last word in this, of course, remainsfell for the ruler. Phillip's main goal IV , consisting Shay in the unification of France under his single command,

in establishing a clear management system, highly progressive naya at that time, was not implemented and turned out to be discrediteditated in the same way as the means by which Filishenjoyed. After Philip's death IV how often it happens that what the king managed to do was anathematizedachieve in the unification of the kingdom and in the statemanagement. almost symbolic for new policy" was)the execution of Marigny, which followed in 1315.

The king defines what money is

"Babylonian exile", the resettlement of the pope in Avignon,saved the French monarchs from the burdensome interferencethe authority of the papacy in their affairs. The frauds with coins that brought Philip notoriety became under hissons who ruled until 1328, but especially underthe rulers of the Valois dynasty, who came to power after them, by the right of the king. Philip VI (reigned 1328- 1350) expressed the views of the decline of the Roman Empirethat the supreme power of the emperor extendsand on the money economy, as follows: “No onethere should be no doubt that only We and Ourroyal majesty determine the order of minting coins,their manufacture, type, stocks, only We issue ordonans about the price at which they enter circulation:based on their own interests and desires.

Why Philip IV received a derogatory nickname:"counterfeiter", has now become a prescribedby law the prerogative of the king. Already the second Valois in Frenchthrone - John II (ruled 1350-1364) demonstrated that Philip the Handsome was only novice amateur. Only four months (from 27 to November 1359 to March 31, 1360) the most popular silver The coin has been changed eight times. So from oneweight of silver instead of the original 12 was made102 coins. But let us repay John the Good, and under thisname he went down in history, due. During these monthsthe king was with his relatives in England,and not quite willingly. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). 19 September 1356 at the Battle of MaupertyJohn the Good lost "victory and freedom", as reported chronicles.

King Edward III English (ruled 1327-1377) took his cousin to him (John was the grandson

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Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Handsome. Edward was the grandsonPhilip on the maternal side. Edward's claimsthe French throne were the occasion for the beginning of the Centenaryher war) to dictate his terms of peace to him:relinquishing possession of several provinces and payingindemnity of 3 million gold coins - this was forFrance peace, signed in 1360 in Brétigny. John returned to France without meeting anyone there who cookedgive him a warm welcome.

During John's involuntary absence from power but France was the Dauphin, who later became King CharlesV(Wise). The successes of his reign were verydoubtful. The devastation brought by war is crueltaxes and forced recruitment caused creStyan uprisings and performances in cities thatin June 1358 were brutally suppressed only underthe intervention of Charles the Evil, King of Navarre. After that, how "calm" was thus restored, the Dauphin ordered to start minting underweightcoins.

At the beginning of 1364, John the Good, depressed, faithwent to England, where he soon died. He couldn't youfulfill the terms of the peace treaty. Territorial preEdward's demands were on the whole satisfied, worse aboutdealt with cash payments due to economic devastation in France. John's successor, to whom the militaryfortune was more favorable, left in memory of himselfnot only the royal library, but also the Bastille, which, however, became a royal prison only later three centuries.

Coin counterfeiting continued in France forthis Hundred Years War. Only CarlVII(ruledin 1422-1461) took care to streamlinecoin affairs. By 1430 the price of silver was so underit appeared that the coin scams characteristic of the height of machinations of Philip the Handsome in 1305, now consideredwere the norm. Things were different with the minting of gold coins.coins. If Philip's recordIVwas 55 florinsfrom the original weight of gold (mark), then under KarlVIIfrom it minted from 80 to 100 florins, which was considered normalsmall. The coins got smaller.

Later, under the Bourbons, dubious games with coins are resumed. LouisXIV- Sun King, correctshy in 1651-1715, - turns the maintenance of growthmow your yard in public policy. And in all

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Europe, even in the smallest counties, he found after givers. Crafts and the beginnings of industry developXia in two main areas: the production ofluxury goods and meeting the needs of an unceasingongoing wars. But for Moloch the state treasury of thisnot enough. In 1693 the Sun King returns.to the long-tested practice of issuing new coins.(Removal from circulation of old and worn coins and replacementtheir new ones were practiced back inXIcentury in Bohemiain connection with the coming to power of new rulers. Verysoon those in power saw in this an excellentthe possibility of earning income by increasing the feefor minting more coins from the samevolume.) Louis withdrew louis from circulation (louis d'or -golden Louis), and then, having made it easier, returned them to the marketwith a higher face value. It was the samea game that Philip the Handsome gladly amused himself with.

Against violations of the rules of minting coins, leadingto the enrichment of the rulers, spoke in his work “Prinprinciples of the sovereign "famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274). He wrote that the coin was intendedsolely for the purpose of promoting economicturnover. Thomas Aquinas was a fanatical extortion no papal claims to world domination. And the later representatives of these rational views and demands, incompatible with the thirst for enrichment of worldly rulers and consisting in the subordination of money exclusively to economic tasks, came from the ranks ofclergy: Nicholas of Orezm, Bishop of Liso (died1382), Gabriel Biel, abbot and professor at Tübin gene (died 1495). Their ideas were that all money should be valuable and servesolely by the measure of the goods in circulation. Depreciated coins are allowed only during the war years, onlyto the consent of the people and should be regarded asvariety credit money, which after the endmilitary hardships are subject to a full exchange. Howeversuch views remained the voice of one crying out to theyou do not.

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Philip also had a second nickname: the counterfeiter. It remained with Philip IV to this day, although many rulers later surpassed him in this craft. The king earned his nickname by being a "political blacksmith from Reims", as the king's brother Charles of Valois used to say. This "Rheims blacksmith" also attracted the attention of Dante Alighieri, who, having fired many sarcastic arrows at the Capetians in the Divine Comedy, devoted several lines to Philip's monetary manipulations and connected Philip's death from boar fangs with the royal counterfeiting of coins. (Philip died on November 29, 1314, as a result of several blows, the first of which overtook him on November 4 while hunting. The legend that he fell from his horse and was attacked by a boar was at one time widespread.)

Already in 1292, the first sin of the French king begins. He introduces a general taxation of his subjects, which also applies to the clergy. Worldly nobility is taxed in the amount of a hundredth of their property (in some parts of the country the tax rises to 1/50), cities pay a turnover tax of one denier per livre, the church is obliged to pay tithes to the royal treasury not only during the war years and in other emergency, but also during normal times. Here is also the “tax from the hearth” - six salts from each household, as well as the “Lombard tax”, which applies to Italian merchants and money changers in France, and the “Jewish tax”.

Only the "Lombard tax" brought to the treasury in 1292-1293 about 150,000 livres.

Without a doubt, this taxation was caused not only by the deplorable state of the finances of the court. Philip armed for the war for Aquitaine and Flanders.

In 1294, Philip's troops invaded Aquitaine, and Edward I sends troops from England to defend his duchy. It was a "silent" war, and already in 1296 the opponents agreed to cease hostilities. The agreement was reinforced by the intentions of the royal families to intermarry. Dynastic marriages often protected nations from bloody clashes, but they were never a guarantee of peace.

Nevertheless, the Gascon War, as this campaign came to be called, was very expensive for France. Until the final peace treaty concluded at Chartres in 1303, French troops were stationed in Aquitaine, which cost the treasury 2 million livres.

Today millions, billions of sums of state budget operations, property of corporations, enterprises and even individuals do not cause our surprise. But at the end of the 13th century, a million livres was an overwhelming, unimaginable amount. The calculations were in livres, salts and denier. 12 denier (d) equaled 1 sol (s), and 20 sols equaled 1 livre (l). The livre was only a counting unit, there were no coins in denominations of 1 livre, the most common coins were denier and noon.

During the time of Philip IV in France, there were two currency systems: old, Parisian (p) and new (n). Four old livres equaled five new ones.

A skilled craftsman received at best 18 new deniers (nd) per day, or 27 new livres (nl) per year. The salary of a royal servant of non-noble origin (with the exception of senior officials) was 2-5 soles per day, a knight - 10 soles.

The incomes of senior officials were calculated on an annual basis. The salary of the supreme judge or the highest official of the royal court ranged from 365 to 700 nl. The master of the royal mint, at the same time the king's adviser on monetary affairs, Beten Kosinel, received only 250 nl. The highest paid person in the royal service, Enguerrand de Marigny, received 900 nl a year.

A document drawn up around 1296 gives an idea of ​​what sources were supposed to raise funds to finance the Gascon War:

200,000 nl - solid income from royal estates

249,000 nl - tithe withheld from the income of the church

315,000 nl-tax on barons (1/100 of property)

35,000 nl - tax on barons in Champagne (1/50)

65,000 NL - tax on Lombards

60,000 nl - tax on the trade turnover of cities (in most cases in the form of a "tax from the hearth")

16,000 nl - taxes on transactions between Lombards in France

225,000 Nl - tax on Jews, including fines withheld

200,000 nl - loans from Lombards

630,000 nl - loans from wealthy subjects

50,000 nl - loans from prelates and royal servants

50,000 nl - income from "coin facilitation"

Total: 2 105000 nl

Some positions (for example, the taxation of the Jews) are certainly overstated. Some are not fully disclosed: the list of cities from which the treasury receives tax revenues is clearly not complete.

Whether this money was received, we do not know, nor do we know for what period these receipts were calculated. Only the church tithe corresponded to the annual amount. From loans in 1295, 632,000 nl were received, and not always and not everywhere in a non-violent way. In general, the royal appeal to help the treasury in the "defensive struggle" was a great success. The fact that it was planned to start the war at the latest in 1292, the people, of course, did not know.

But it was almost impossible to repeat what was done in 1295. The peculiarity of loans is that they must be repaid, in addition, interest. Some cities, having learned the hard way about the financial morality of the crown, were able to reduce the amount of loans placed by royal officials, while refusing their subsequent reimbursement. So, in 1295, from the city of Sainton-Poitou, 44,910 nl came as gifts and only 5666 nl - as loans.

Philip IV and later turned to internal loans, but with less success than in 1295. From this year on, the tax pressure began to tighten so hard that wealthy subjects preferred to refrain from voluntary donations. The French kings never took the terms of payments on loans received seriously. When it came to war loans, lenders somehow had to take note that it was pointless to expect to receive their money while the war was going on.

In the cited document, no doubt, a curious position is the income from "coin relief". As early as 1293, the king had a confidential conversation with Muschiatto Guidi, a Lombard experienced in money matters, about the advantages and disadvantages of manipulating coins. Muschiatto did not advise the king to embark on this risky venture, because the consequences of such actions for the economy are negative, the income of the crown ultimately turns into losses. But Philip did not fully understand the needs of the country's economy. His chief advisor on monetary matters, Bathen Cocinel, who was the head of the Paris mint, was also not an expert in this matter. He could only calculate the direct momentary gain to the crown from the reduction in the content of precious metals in the coins. Unlike Muschiatto, he was, moreover, a devoted servant of his master. He had every reason to be useful to his king. At many courts, it was customary to "save" the precious metal in the manufacture of coins. In any case, Cosinel undertook to fulfill the king's instructions to mint a new largest French coin (sol) with a face value much higher than the previous one that was in circulation, while significantly reducing the content of the precious metal in it. Jacques Dimer, auditor of the Paris Mint, submitted to the "higher powers."

The largest coin in circulation at the peak of fraud in 1305 had a face value of 36 denier (instead of 12), which in the end should have caused a corresponding rise in prices. True, this could not happen overnight. The economy in the Middle Ages reacted much more slowly to changes in the monetary economy than it does today. The king was thus able, by issuing falsified and overvalued coins in comparison with their real value, to quickly free himself from a third of his debts. Barons and townspeople fared much worse. They got only a third of the rent they expected to receive from the loans granted to the king.

To prevent unrest, the king already in 1295 instructed his officials to explain to the people the monetary policy pursued as a kind of war loan: as soon as the state of war ceases, the coin, which has deteriorated and overestimated compared to its real value, will be fully exchanged for new money.

Philip fulfilled this promise in his own way. Until 1306, he withdrew coins from circulation five times in order to replace them with new, improved ones, and restore their previous state. The edicts, according to which all full-weight coins that were in circulation in the country and outside it, as well as products of gold and silver, were to be exchanged for bad royal coins, supplemented these measures of the crown, which, in addition, appropriated the income from war booty.

The scale of fraud with silver coins can be seen from the following data. Under Saint Louis (1226), coins were minted from a certain weight of silver, the value of which was more than three times lower than the declared record value of coins minted in April 1305 from the same weight of silver.

The income of the royal treasury from monetary fraud in 1296 was indicated by a modest figure of 101,435 nl. Just two years later, between June 24, 1298 and June 24, 1299, it already amounted to 1.2 million nl. The idea that in such a situation it would be necessary to raise the money income of their subjects was absolutely alien to Philip and his advisers. On the contrary, in their view, each soldier for the previous salary should have been three times as diligent, and this could not go on for a long time.

In 1297, Philip's troops marched against Flanders. The northern county, thanks to the industriousness of its people, was considered the richest of the vassal possessions of the French king. And not only the ruler of Flanders, Guy de Dampierre, but also the rich cities of Ghent, Bruges, Lille, which supplied the whole of Europe with their canvas, considered themselves completely independent. Philip had other plans. The attacks on Aquitaine (1294) were primarily intended to force England, a traditional ally of Flanders, to abandon the defense of the county. And the English king Edward I, whose hands were tied by internal affairs, the suppression of the Scottish rebels, gave Philip this pleasure. In 1300, Flanders was "pacified", its peace and order were to be ensured by the French occupying troops.

The looting of the poorly paid French occupiers and the taxes that Philip imposed on the cities led to a general uprising in May 1302. Philip sent 7,000 horsemen and 20,000 infantry to suppress it. In the bloody Battle of Kortrijk, the French troops were utterly defeated. This is the most crushing defeat of Philip for all the time of his reign.

The Parisian court experienced depression and disappointment these days. There is a search for the causes of what happened, and the indignant king is carefully trying to make it clear that the outcome of the battle may have been influenced by the low salary of well-armed soldiers. Philip does not accept any explanation: the defeat of the rebellious mob cannot be excused by anything. In addition, he has no money:

"Tax collectors deceive us at every turn, they collect much more than they hand over to the treasury."

This is the first and only time that the king accuses those in his service of uncleanliness. He knows that his accusations are based on nothing. Treasury revenues from taxes and manipulation of the mint, for the most part, do not go to pay the troops at all. Huge sums are spent on the expansion of the royal palace, palace festivities, generous gifts to foreign rulers to ensure non-interference in the military enterprises of the king.

The minting of counterfeit coins, or, to put it better, the manipulation of coins, is the second major sin of Philip the Handsome, of which history accuses him. The third sin of the Capetian king will never be forgiven in Rome.

In 1296, Philip demands that the French church double its tithe contribution to the treasury to maintain the protection of the kingdom. Until now, Philip has never denied the church "reciprocal gifts", primarily in the form of expanding its land holdings, given that church tithes in difficult years amounted to a quarter to a third of all state revenues. However, this time the church demands greater privileges from France. Unexpectedly, even before the start of negotiations, the Roman holy father Pope Boniface VIII intervenes in this matter, forbidding in his bull any indemnities from the church in favor of worldly rulers.

The Holy See in those days was by no means an all-Christian institution. For centuries, he fought with the royal houses for power even in this world. His sure weapon so far has been the refusal of a blessing, the threat or actual excommunication. This meant that the "excommunicated" was outside of any worldly and spiritual laws. The power of the papal curse was experienced by Henry IV (1056-1106) and Frederick II (1212-1250).

Boniface VIII, the 199th pope in the history of the church, a power-hungry and irascible man, was elected pope in 1294. This year he turned 76 years old, the age at that time downright biblical.

Philip IV responded to the papal bull by banning any export of gold and precious metals from France. After an exchange of letters in which each side defended its point of view, the pope finally relented and declared that his bull did not apply to France. And then something happened that temporarily suspended the constant, sometimes smoldering, sometimes flaring up like a volcano, the struggle of the sacred throne for worldly power.

Bishop of Parma

Bernard Sesse, Bishop of Parma, a faithful supporter of the pope, repeatedly spoke out against the despotism and autocracy of Philip, thereby winning applause not only in Rome. He spoke of Philip's coins as follows:

“This money is cheaper than dirt. They are impure and false; unrighteous and dishonest acts the one by whose will they are minted. In all the Roman curia I do not know anyone who would give even a handful of dirt for this money.

These speeches evoked a lively response from his flock. But they reacted in their own way in the palace. Philip did not tolerate any opponents, he only waited for a convenient excuse to silence his opponent. Sesse soon gave the king such an opportunity himself, when he compared the king, invested with the rank of God's viceroy in France, with an owl, “the most beautiful of birds, which is good for nothing ... Such is our king, the most beautiful man in the world, who, however, , can do nothing but see the surroundings. It was an open insult to royal majesty, treason. At the end of October 1301, Bernard Sesse was taken into custody and brought to trial. It was a kind of process. There was no shortage of witnesses confirming the seditious statements of the accused. He was even deprived of a protector. Yet Sesse was the Pope's messenger. In any case, the decision of the court was very lenient. There were also such witnesses who urged not to take everything seriously. Bishop - an elderly man with a bad temper, who, after taking a sip from a bottle, sometimes blurts out too much. Others, not without irony, said that he was simple "to the point of holiness." The verdict took into account "extenuating circumstances". Philip actually limited himself to depriving Sesse of the episcopal dignity and property worth 40,000 nl, which "with the consent" of Sesse was transferred to one of the monasteries. Sesse never saw his money again, although seven years later he was returned to the episcopal rank.

The Chronicle reports that Philip was not pleased with the process, and with good reason. He needed a church tithe.

The reaction of the Holy See was not long in coming. Already on December 5, 1301 (the verdict dated from the end of November), the papal ambassadors brought Boniface's bull (this message, under the eloquent title "Listen, son," was prepared even before the start of the trial against Sesse), in which he called himself the supreme judge. Boniface notified the "king of the French" about the elimination of all privileges that the French court had in its relationship with the holy church. The most painful for Philip was the annulment of the right negotiated in 1297 from Rome to tax the French Church with a decimal tax without the consent of the pope. Philip was also irritated by the attacks on his policies contained in a very voluminous bull. It was also about his export bans, about the choice of royal advisers, about royal decrees, about financial policy and manipulation of coins. Boniface, however, refrained from directly calling Philip IV a counterfeiter.

In later sources devoted to this historical single combat, it is invariably reported that Philip in February 1302 ordered the burning of the papal bull in public. However, there is no conclusive evidence, and it is generally unlikely. Philip instructed his first minister, Pierre Flot, to look into this matter, who informed only a narrow circle of advisers about the content of the bull. It remained unknown primarily to the most faithful associates of the pope from the royal entourage. Instead of a detailed notice, Floté summed up the Roman reproaches in one sentence: "Know that you are our subject in both temporal and spiritual matters." Boniface did not write like this, but it followed from the content of his epistle. And it was by this phrase that the papal bull was to be judged at the meeting of the Estates General on April 10, 1302.

This April day is a very curious date in French history. For the first time, representatives of not only the nobility and clergy, but also the third estate in the person of the townspeople were invited. This move ensured victory for the king, and the Fleet was given the title of Keeper of the Great King's Seal in gratitude.

The old man, seated on the Holy Throne, when he learned of the decision taken at the meeting of the three estates in Paris, was beside himself. He convenes a church council, to which only half of the French bishops arrive (39 out of 79), and curses the Navy, "whom God has already punished with partial physical blindness and complete spiritual blindness." The fleet is called the second Ahitophel, it is also said that he will share the fate of the latter. The pope's prediction was soon confirmed: Pierre Floté was killed on July 11 of the same year at the Battle of Kortrijk. What impression his death made on the French bishops, we do not know.

Fleet's successor was the same energetic and even more meticulous in carrying out the will of the king, Guillaume Nogaret, who was soon granted the nobility by the king. Maurice Druon, in his book The Curse of Fire, characterizes this lean, dark-haired man with restless eyes as a merciless and "inevitable as a scythe of death" servant of the king, who looked like a devil and was devilishly persistent in carrying out his master's policy.

On November 18, 1302, a new bull of Boniface follows, in which he develops the postulate that any being between heaven and earth is subject to the Holy See: “We declare, proclaim and determine that every person is necessarily a subject of the Roman pontificate, if he immortality of his soul.

In addressing this message, Boniface overestimated his strength, although it is sustained in a much more peaceful tone compared to the previous bull. Philip had influential allies in Italy as well. First of all, these are representatives of the family of the Counts of Colonna, whose property was sequestered by Boniface in favor of members of his family, greedy for power and wealth. In turn, Guillaume Nogaret knew from Colonne about the accusations made against Boniface during the period of the unusual abdication of the throne by his predecessor Celestine V. The content of the accusations boiled down to the fact that Boniface was allegedly subject to heresy, sexual perversion and other sins. Hardly anything from this list corresponded to reality. However, Philip's lawyers were subtly experienced in scholastic and chicanery battles, and Boniface's phrase, which he really could utter in vehemence: "I'd rather be a dog than a Frenchman," turned against him: "A dog has no soul, but the very last Frenchman she is. In other words, Boniface does not believe in the immortality of the soul. He is a heretic."

On June 13, 1303, at a meeting of representatives of the nobility and clergy in the Louvre, many similar finds were announced, which gave rise to a proposal to convene a church council at which Boniface's heresy was to be discussed. The question of where and when to convene a council remained open.

Boniface, meanwhile, writes another bull, which is delivered to Paris on September 8 and is read out. The content of the bull is as follows: Philip of France is excommunicated because he forbade the French prelates to go to Rome, gave refuge to the apostate Stefano Colonna and lost the confidence of his subjects.

On the same day, the king speaks confidentially with the keeper of his seal: “Nogare, no one should know about this message. We do not limit you in anything, but the pope must appear before the church cathedral. Guillaume Nogaret did not need many words, and the handshake with which the king honored him meant that the fate of the king was now in his hands. Nogare wastes no time, he chooses the most reliable and most courageous knights and together with them goes to Anagni, the personal possession of the pope. There, with the support of the Colonna family, he actually captures the 86-year-old dad. Apparently, Boniface was subjected to very ill-treatment. In any case, four weeks after the people of Anagni release him, he dies in the Vatican. But the fading strength of Boniface is enough to excommunicate Guillaume de Nogaret from the church.

Dante finds bitter words to describe the attack at Anagni, qualifying it as a murder, although Boniface does not arouse much sympathy from him.

In the struggle for power with Rome, the winner is Philip IV. But at what cost? In the years 1301-1303, his treasury does not receive church tithes, and this is a loss of almost 800,000 nl. Benedict XI, the newly elected pope, is peacefully disposed and is ready to agree to the collection of church tithes by the French king, provided that Philip takes an oath in holy scripture that he was not involved in the attempt at Anagni. Philip swears, but it is a false oath.

The 200th pope, Benedict XI, was destined to remain on the Holy Throne for only a year. His successor was Philip's protégé, Archbishop of Bordeaux Bertrand de Gault, who was elected pope in 1305 thanks to the efforts of the French crown and took the name of Clement V. Four years later, he moved his residence to Avignon, where the popes spent in the so-called "Babylonian exile" [by analogy with captivity in Babylon of the people of Israel by Nebuchadnezzar (597-538 BC)] until 1377.

December 23, 1305 Clement V releases Philip from Boniface's curse and grants him remission of sins associated with numerous extortion of church money and manipulation of coins. He extols, by the grace of God, the King of France as "the brightest star among all the Catholic Monarchs." Philip, by no means deaf to flattery, responds by declaring himself the protector of those bishops and abbeys against whom Clement V was too cruel, but he himself begins to collect taxes and forced loans from them, the King easily distributes gifts in return - letters of grant privileges and freedoms - and just as easily forgets about them. His lawyers have to take care of loopholes, and they know their stuff.

The third sin, attacking the Holy See, is immediately followed by the fourth.

Counterfeiting is one of the oldest criminal professions - as soon as money appeared, people immediately appeared who began to forge it. The famous ancient Greek philosopher Diogenes Sinop, who, according to legend, lived in a barrel, but few people know that in his youth he was a counterfeiter ...

There is a story that has come down to us about his father, who was engaged in the fabrication of counterfeit money. According to legend, Diogenes' father was a usurer and money changer in Sinop, and he attracted his son to the manufacture of "light" coins. Diogenes took part in his father's scam, was exposed with him, caught and expelled from his native city.

The first counterfeiter in history is the tyrant ruler of the island of Samos named Polycrates, who seized power in 538. He paid off the Spartans besieging the island, who surrounded Samos with lead coins covered with a thin layer of gold, and thereby lifted the blockade of the city.

In the XII-XIV centuries, counterfeiting was carried out by representatives of all classes, but most often of the spiritual. History has preserved the name of Abbot Messendron, who during the reign of the English King Edward III (1312-1377) almost openly produced and distributed counterfeit coins. They hung him on the rack and then hung him.

In the 15th century in France, Countess Jeanne de Bologne-et-Auverne made counterfeit coins for seven years in her family castle in Toulouse. "Mint" was equipped in the basement of the castle, two specially trusted persons minted coins. In 1422, they were nevertheless exposed and arrested.

Counterfeiting paper money probably began long ago, shortly after its inception. The apparent simplicity of the process attracted me. Indeed, paper money is not a coin that requires quite sophisticated equipment, appropriate alloys and chemicals, and a certain skill to counterfeit. And here is something simpler: copy the drawing on a paper rectangle - and you are rich ...

However, this apparent simplicity attracted not only ordinary scammers, but also the mighty of the world this. They did not trouble themselves by drawing individual pictures by hand, but put things on a grand scale ...

Easy money is the worst punishment

But, observing the historical sequence, it would still be logical to start with the counterfeiting of coins as a more ancient means of payment. For centuries, coins were minted only from gold and silver. The state that issued the money was responsible for the accuracy of the weight and sample. The face value of the coin was always slightly higher than the actual value of the metal from which it was made. This difference provided the so-called monetary income of the treasury. And some rulers sought to increase this income. They were simply engaged in falsification - they reduced the weight of the coins, added a ligature (low-value impurities) to the metal.

The French monarch Philip IV, who went down in history as the "forgery king", was especially famous in this field. The court alchemist of the English king Henry VI once discovered that copper rubbed with mercury becomes silvery. With his discovery, he hurried to the king, and he, without thinking twice, ordered the release of a huge number of such false silver coins.

Coin of Philip IV the Handsome, 1306

And the German princes of the 17th century completely lost their conscience. They issued counterfeit coins without any restrictions. And when the time came to collect taxes, the princes refused to accept fakes, demanding only coins of earlier issues. Apparently, it was then that the sad saying was born: "Easy money for the country is a worse punishment than hard wars."

The minting of counterfeit money was also used as an instrument of foreign policy. The Czech king Louis II in 1517 issued coins similar to the Polish half pennies, but containing a very small amount of silver. This "currency" brought down the Polish market. At the beginning of the 17th century, Poland and Sweden were at war with Russia - and fake Russian coins were minted by both.

In the middle of the 18th century, during the war with Saxony, King Frederick II of Prussia put coins with a reduced silver content into circulation in the occupied territory, marking the pre-war dates of issue on them. So the august counterfeiter ensured the maintenance of his army.

Russia itself did not lag behind in this ignoble industry. On December 18, 1812, Arakcheev, in a letter to the Minister of Finance Guryev, conveyed the highest command: upon the appearance of the army abroad, to assign the content "one and a half rubles in silver, counting the Dutch gold piece in three silver rubles." Why were salaries recalculated for Dutch chervonets?

The answer is simple. For a century and a half now, Russia has been minting these same Dutch chervonets, with which it made foreign payments. In official papers, there was an evasive name for them "famous coin". Obviously, Dutch chervonets were very popular in those days, because England also forged exactly the same coins.

Ducats of 1818, 1829 and 1841 coinage of the St. Petersburg Mint.

All this, as they say, is just flowers. Berries started with a wide distribution paper money, although as such they existed before.

His Majesty's Engraver

IN late XVIII century, a revolution broke out in France. And emigrants, loyal to the idea of ​​monarchy, not from a good life forged the banknotes of the Convention. They were engaged in this at specially equipped enterprises in Switzerland and England. After only one battle on the Quiberon peninsula, the revolutionary troops seized 10 million fake livres!

Later, this French experience served the most famous Frenchman in history - Napoleon. From 1806 to 1809, he ordered to counterfeit Austrian and Prussian money, seeking the collapse of the enemy's economy, in 1810 - English, and then it came to the Russians. About how it was, tells in his memoirs Joseph Lal, an engraver of the main military department of France, who was approached by the Special Department of the secret office of the emperor.

Lal writes that at the beginning of 1810 an unfamiliar customer came to him and asked him to accurately copy the text printed in London. The work was done on time and so well that it delighted the customer. There was no point in encrypting further. Having revealed his incognito, the customer invited Lal to the Ministry of Police, where he was asked to make a cliché of an English bank. Lal did not let us down and soon received a similar order for Russian fakes.

In just a month, Lal and his employees made about 700 clichés - the production of fakes was planned on a grand scale. The printing house was equipped in Montparnasse, and was supervised by her brother, Napoleon's secretary, Jean-Jacques Fin. There was, according to Lal, a special room where the floor was covered with a thick layer of dust. Ready-made banknotes were thrown into this dust, after which they were mixed with a leather whisk. This was necessary (we quote Lal) "in order for them to become soft, take on an ashy hue and look as if they had already passed through many hands."

What was the quality of the English "money" produced by the company "Lal and company", we do not know, but with the Russians they could not achieve decent quality. It was easy to spot fakes. The French printed banknotes on paper of better quality than the Russians; on fakes, the images of medallions, which are almost invisible on the originals, stood out quite clearly. The letters on the fakes were engraved more clearly than on the originals, and in some batches outright mistakes were made - for example, the letter "l" instead of "d" in the word "state".

Detector scales for detecting counterfeit coins, USA, 1882.

However, one way or another, Napoleon's scam gained momentum as the French approached the capital of Russia - printing houses were opened in Dresden, Warsaw, and finally, in Moscow itself, at the Preobrazhensky cemetery. When, after the war, our Senate carried out the replacement of banknotes, among the 830 million in circulation, more than 70 million were Napoleonic counterfeits.

There are no gentlemen in war

Where there is war, there is, as a rule, economic sabotage with the help of counterfeit money. During the American Civil War, southerners counterfeited northerners' money. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, the Land of the Rising Sun printed counterfeit rubles.

And on the eve of the First World War, the money of the future enemy was made in Germany and Austria-Hungary. Minister of Justice Shcheglovitov wrote in a letter to the director of the Police Department Dzhunkovsky that in Russia “government credit notes of 500-ruble denominations, printed on specially prepared paper with a watermark, have become widespread in the same way that was used exclusively by the Procurement Expedition. government papers and was considered until now unconditionally providing state credit notes from fakes.

A record of the interrogation of an Austrian prisoner of war Josef Hetl was found in the archives of the Special Section of the Russian Police Department. The prisoner said that his school friend Alexander Erdelyi works at the Vienna Military Geographic Institute, where fake Russian banknotes are printed in denominations of 10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles. His testimony was confirmed by repeated seizures of such papers in the Volga region, in the Caucasus, in Irkutsk, Kursk and other cities.

The Minister's Plan Fails

Counterfeit money adventures continued after the war. Could not, and did not want to overcome the temptation of Germany, Austria and Hungary. On Austrian territory, for example, Czech banknotes were printed. Although their quality was high, the agent was nevertheless arrested while trying to sell - the operation became known to Czech intelligence in advance.

And the well-known political figure Gustav Stresemann, who was the German Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929, developed a plan to counterfeit francs, with a further focus on pounds sterling.

The practical implementation of the project was entrusted to the Hungarian prince Windischgrätz. The illustrious swindler studied the technique of falsification at the German intelligence factory in Cologne. One of Windischgrätz's assistants, Colonel of the General Staff Jankovic, went to Paris, where he got acquainted with the peculiarities of packing money by the French Bank on the spot.

Banknotes were ready in 1925, they were kept in the Hungarian embassies in a number of countries. Jankovic went to Holland and in The Hague presented a thousand-franc note at the bank. He was unlucky: an attentive cashier immediately recognized the fake and called the police.

Jankovic was arrested. The Hungarian ambassador informed the government of what had happened, and on a prearranged signal, the agents destroyed the evidence - doused it with gasoline and burned the entire supply of fakes. But the Bank of France saw a serious danger in the Yankovic case. He sent detectives to Budapest, and they managed to unearth a lot. A major international scandal was brewing. To deflect the blow from the government, Windischgrätz and Jankovic took all the blame and were sentenced to prison in 1926.

A thief stole a club from a thief

In these notes, we deliberately did not touch on the activities of the Nazi counterfeiters who printed pounds sterling and dollars as part of Operation Bernhard. Books have been written about this operation, documentaries and feature films have been shot. Let us mention only one curiosity associated with it.

A paid agent worked for the Third Reich in the English embassy in Turkey under the pseudonym Cicero. He transmitted information of operational importance, but the Germans could not use it due to the rapidly changing military situation.

After the war, Cicero found out that the pounds that German intelligence was paying him were counterfeit. And so it happened that the Germans paid for information that was useless to them with counterfeit money.

Andrey BYSTROV