1. Consistent ideology type
2. Legacy of transition from conservative bureaucracy: - (type A transition)
3. Legacy of the transition from "radical liberalism": - (transition type B)
Below we will show that the detection of such a mixed structure − necessary condition a clear enough understanding of the fascism of Germany and Italy. If the ideology eventually became dominant and expressed the essence of mature fascism in the most complete way, then the presence of transitions - and - is important to identify for two reasons. First, only in this way can we trace the real origin of fascist movements and their evolution. Secondly, only by revealing the scheme of the evolution of fascism, we will be able to understand the internal tensions of the "ripe" fascist structures.
Transition - (type A) outwardly most closely matches the communist ideas about the true essence of fascism as a "terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic and most imperialist elements of finance capital." The petty-bourgeois element is given a purely subordinate role: by analogy with the work of a handful of revolutionaries in a boundless sea of "masses", the existence of a mass, but stupid and unorganized petty-bourgeois movement, directed by a handful of diabolically sophisticated "tycoons" is assumed.
| In 1952, Togliatti clarified the use of the term "social base of fascism". The first Squadrist organizations of the fascists, both in the countryside and in the city, were formed mainly from elements of the petty bourgeoisie. However, this fact cannot serve as a basis for considering the fascist movement as petty-bourgeois. These very Squadrist organizations acted on the orders of the agrarians and industrialists in order to crush the labor movement. Therefore, the reactionary industrialists and agrarians themselves must be called their "social base". To assert that the strata of the petty and middle bourgeoisie were the social base of the fascist movement is to make a mistake and create confusion. Togliatti considered it more accurate to use the following definitions in these cases: the mass base of the fascist movement in some petty-bourgeois strata or a recruited base when it comes to armed formations. (MH, 83) |
Attempts to use the fascist movement as an army of civil war were really actively undertaken by the big agrarians and industrialists of Italy. However, these attempts never led to the complete dependence of the Squadri militants on big capital, on the contrary, they ended in the real subordination of the elite to the Nazis. The stormtroopers of German National Socialism, even in the early period, could only be considered with a big stretch as someone's tool. In short, the desire to subordinate the fascists to their goals was undoubtedly present among big capital, but the real development of events in Italy and Germany led not to the determining, but to the subordinate function of the former bureaucratic and financial elite.
In fact, if the movement of type A is really controlled by the elite, then most likely just not the most radical version of fascism will form - fascism of the 1st type. Such fascism usually relies on the police and the army, and not on a mass fascist party, which may not exist at all.
And, on the contrary, the formation of a much more decisive fascism of the 2nd type will be served by a mass movement of type A, in which not only ordinary performers, but also ideologists are dissatisfied petty-bourgeois officials, soldiers, students, etc. revolutionary-minded adherents of the idea of building a new, "correct" totalitarian machine.
The less revolutionary nature of bureaucrats (even those at the lower bureaucratic levels) is due to the fact that an official, first of all, seeks to move up the steps of the hierarchical system, while a supporter of the liberal idea is ready to break it altogether. The bureaucratic petty-bourgeois environment becomes a truly effective force only when the conservative bureaucratic machine weakens under the onslaught of the left and liberals and crowds of officials find themselves out of work.
The totalitarianism of fascism seems so obvious that the role of the transition to fascism is often mistakenly underestimated from the standpoint of "radical liberalism" - (type B), which in the early stages of the formation of fascism can play a decisive role.
Here's what it looked like in Italy. The first steps of fascism were rather vague, but its totalitarian orientation does not appear immediately.
| Even at the Third Fascist Congress in November 1921, Mussolini expressed ideas that by no means revealed the face of the fascism that really came to power. “In the field of economics,” he said, “we are liberals, because we believe that the national economy cannot be entrusted to collective and bureaucratic societies”; in fact, the fascist corporate policy led, as is known, to the creation of a huge bureaucratic apparatus. (AL,42) The concept of totalitarianism did not immediately appear in the arsenal of fascist ideology. Take the original concept of the relationship between citizen and state. In it, you are more likely to find elements of anarchist liberalism: a protest against state intervention in privacy etc. On the contrary, totalitarianism is a reflection of the changes that have taken place. (TL,45) If we compare the fascist program of 1919 with the program of nationalism of the same period, then there will be no doubt that the "fascist" (in the sense in which the term was subsequently used) is not the first, but the second; this foreshadowed the inevitable identification of fascism with nationalism, which happened later. (AL,42) In May 1923, the fascists and nationalists merged organizationally. This merger had a double meaning. The Nationalist Party was little before the merger. In some places, the Nazis beat the nationalists. But then the nationalists were conquered. However, a little time passes, and the vanquished themselves become winners. (TL,63) This gradual identification of nationalism with fascism was clearly seen by the leaders of both movements themselves; this was also noticed by those who studied these issues. But it cannot be said that such clarity was characteristic of representatives of the democratic and liberal camps. The fact is that in its quest for power, fascism met with broad support from the Italian liberal-democratic ruling circles. |
The German material at first glance seems to be more homogeneous, it is dominated by the actual fascist tendency. Initially, the greater totalitarianism of National Socialism is due to a number of reasons. First, nationalism that consistently led to totality was more pronounced in Germany, which had been defeated in the war, than in Italy, and seemed the most suitable means for uniting the broad masses. Secondly, Hitler, unlike Mussolini, from the very beginning was a consistent supporter of totalitarian fascism proper.
However, the original ideology of the mass fascist movement in Germany was also mixed and contained clear anti-bureaucratic tendencies. Moreover, these tendencies, as we will show below, not only did not interfere with Hitler, but, on the contrary, were recognized by him and consistently used as one of the reliable tools for building a total fascist state.
We have already seen this perspective in Spengler, in his "Prussian socialism":
In 1942, Hitler speaks out loud:
Moscow State Regional University
Open Education Institute
Test
On the history of economics
on the topic: “The economic policy of German fascism”
Completed by: Khurgcheeva M.V.
2nd year student of the Faculty of Economics
Specialty: "Management of organizations"
Correspondence form of education using
remote technologies
Moscow 2009
Introduction
I. Economic policy of German fascism
1.2 Rise of fascism to power
2.2 Centralized economic mechanism
2.3 Financial and credit Problems
2.4 Agricultural policy
2.5 Preparing for war
Conclusion
Introduction
Development of features economic policy fascism are considered by us on the basis of an analysis of the patterns of development monopoly capitalism in Germany against the background of general trends in the historical evolution of capitalism in that country. The characteristic features of this evolution are determined by the belated economic development of Germany in comparison with other Western European countries.
The purpose of this work is to study the economic policy of fascism in Germany. The objectives for this study are:
a) analyze the general patterns of development of industrial production, as well as the factors that contributed to the development of industry,
b) show the development of individual industries, determine which industries were of decisive importance for the country,
c) trace the process of concentration of production and labor, as well as the formation and development of monopoly capital,
d) give an analysis of the development of agriculture.
These questions will be answered in this work.
I. The economic policy of German fascism
1. Germany after World War 1
The peculiarity of the historical development of German capitalism was that with late XIX century, the German economy grew at a faster rate than in other capitalist countries of Europe. German imperialism entered the world arena, belatedly dividing markets and sources of raw materials. Therefore, the redistribution of the world becomes its political and economic task.
I World War ended with the defeat of Germany and inflicted huge material losses on it. As a result of the war state debt increased 32 times from 5 to 160 billion marks. To strengthen the position of the monopolies, a policy of forced cartelization and syndication was pursued. Cartels and syndicates are the simplest types of monopolies, connected not by industrial ties, but by financial ties. Forced syndication in Germany affected cement, aluminum, tobacco and shoe factories. Pretty soon, Germany exhausted all its raw materials, and repeated mobilizations exhausted the reserve of labor. As a result, the volume of production is sharply reduced. The total volume of industrial production in 1918 decreased in comparison with 1913 by 43%, and national wealth was halved.
The greatest calamity was inflation. Release paper money acquired astronomical proportions. If in 1913 4 marks were given for one dollar, then in November 1923. - 8 billion marks. Twenty state printing houses worked at full capacity, printing paper signs. This resulted in money becoming cheaper than the paper it was printed on. Inflation contributed to the enrichment of the most enterprising industrialists. By the end of 1922, they were able to obtain from the state credits and loans in the amount of 422 billion marks, which quickly depreciated. The loans were returned at face value. In the autumn of 1923 the rise in prices reached 16% per day, and in 1923 wages increased 1 billion times. The daily wage of a skilled worker in Berlin in November 1923 was 3 trillion. 38 billion marks, but it was not even enough for food. Such a salary had to be carried in baskets. All this required carrying out in 1923. monetary reform, which would stabilize the brand. .
1.1 Treaty of Versailles
In 1918 the Kaiser was overthrown and Germany became a bourgeois republic. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed. The economic losses for Germany under this treaty were large. The colonies pass to England, France, Belgium. It gives France Alsace and Lorraine and grants the Saar coal basin for 15 years. Germany lost 75% of ore mining, 43.8% of iron smelting, 35% of steel production, 29% of coal mining, 50% of zinc and lead smelting. Germany's national wealth declined by 49.7%.
In addition, Germany had to pay reparations of 132 billion gold marks to the victorious countries. Payments in kind were allowed. 5,000 locomotives, 150,000 wagons, a large number of agricultural machines, and 40,000 dairy cows were confiscated. For the next 10 years, as a reformation, she was to supply building materials, chemicals and dairy cattle. The treaty obliged Germany to reduce the army to 100 thousand people, of which officers - up to 4 thousand. General military service was replaced by free employment, the German general staff was disbanded, and the production of weapons was strictly regulated. Germany was forbidden to have heavy artillery, tanks, submarines, military aircraft. The navy was limited to six ironclads and a few smaller vessels. The Rhineland was to be completely demilitarized
The war-ravaged German economy was unable to make these payments. The amount of payments turned out to be so high that the German government declared default on payments. Germany was hit by severe social upheavals. Subsidizing the policy of "passive resistance" has led to hitherto unknown inflation. Workers and employees could not even buy bread with their wages. Speculation has reached unprecedented proportions. All foundations of public and economic country were undermined.
Western countries, themselves in crisis, adopted a new reparations plan, which was called the Young Plan. The total amount of reparations was reduced from 132 to 113.9 billion marks, the payment period was provided for at 59 years, and annual payments were reduced. For implementation decisions taken The Bank for International Settlements was established in Basel. But the crisis deepened and in June 1932 the conference in Lausanne reduced all payments to 3 billion marks and determined the period of their payment at 15 years. In 1930, due to the economic crisis, Germany temporarily suspends the payment of reparations, and in 1933 the Hitler government refuses them altogether.
1.2 The German economy in the 20-30s
Up to 1924, economic chaos is observed in Germany, as the domestic market has shrunk and foreign markets have been lost, and a revolutionary situation is brewing in the country. American banker Dauels proposes a program to restore the German economy. His plan called for a reduction in payments to 1 billion gold marks. Payments were to be covered from the revenues of industry and railways. In addition, Germany was to receive foreign investment. So for 1924 - 1929. Germany received 30 billion marks in foreign loans, 70% of this amount fell on the United States. The government itself received a loan of 800 million marks, and long-term loans amounted to 12 billion marks. Period from 1924 to 1929 was a period of rapid concentration and centralization of capital in Germany. The exit of the industry from the crisis was accompanied by the intensification of monopolization processes. Established in 1925, the chemical concern "IG Farbenindustri" immediately became the largest in Europe. The enterprises of the concern produced 100% German synthetic gasoline and dyes, 80% synthetic nitrogen, 25% rayon. Six Ruhr concerns - "Vereinigte stalwerke", Krupp, Hesch, Haniel, Mannesmann and Klöckner - controlled 65% of iron production and 60% of coal mining. Concern Stinnes "Steel Trust" in 1926 controlled 43% of the output of pig iron, 40% of the production of steel and iron, had about 300 enterprises, which employed about 200 thousand workers. The electrical industry was dominated by the concerns of the General Electricity Company (AEG) and Siemens. In 1926, at the initiative of German industrialists, the European Steel Cartel was created, which smelted 75% of the steel in Europe. Major successes have been achieved: mechanical engineering, electrical and chemical industry. The production of synthetic gasoline and artificial silk was mastered. German industry was on the rise, its share in the world industrial production increased from 8% in 1923 to 12% in 1928. In 1929, for the first time, exports exceeded imports. The pre-war level was surpassed. Wages increased by 50%, production labor - by 40%. German finance capital participated in 200 of the 300 international monopolies. Most of the deposits and capital were concentrated in the hands of four banks (Deutsche Bank, Dresden Bank, Discount Gesellschaft and Darmstadt Bank).
But prosperity turned out to be “shaky”. The world economic crisis that broke out in 1929 had a catastrophic effect on Germany, since the basis of the country's economy was foreign loans and foreign trade. Due to the crisis, new loans stopped, the number of foreigners' demands to repay loans increased, and the volume of exports to pay for the import of raw materials and food in Germany decreased. As a result: the volume of production from 1929 to 1933. decreased by almost 50%, many enterprises went bankrupt, the unemployment rate reached 6 million people. The public debt rose from 8.2 billion marks in 1929 to 11.4 billion dollars in 1932. The continuous decline in industrial production continued for 4 years. The volume of industrial production during this time decreased by 40.6%. In heavy industry, the decline in production was even greater: steel production fell by 64.9%, pig iron - by 70.3%, production in the machine-building industry - by 62.1%, shipbuilding - by 80%. Entire industrial regions were idle. For example, in Upper Silesia at the beginning of 1932 all blast furnaces were in operation. Foreign trade turnover fell 2.5 times. Industrial enterprises In Germany in 1932, only 33.4% of their capacities were used. Following the collapse in 1931 of Kredinstalt, one of the main German banks, Darmstadter und Nationalbank, went bankrupt, which forced the government to temporarily close all banks.
The crisis showed the disastrous experience of Germany after 1918 in the use of deposit banks current national and foreign savings to promote the recovery of the industry. A specific feature of the crisis in Germany was that the increase in the discount rate to 20% failed to prevent the rapid withdrawal of capital from banks, which caused the collapse of many of them. Gain banking crisis and mass unemployment contributed to the processes of rationing and concentration in industry that unfolded in Germany after the First World War. The speedily created cartels and concerns were unions of entrepreneurs to exclude competition.
The state saved the monopolies from bankruptcy by providing them with subsidies, loans and guarantees, adhered to the principle of maintaining balance in its activities for a long time. state budget. At a time when it was necessary to revive production with a slight expansion in prices, the rigid restrictive policy of Hindenburg, the weak and inactive chancellor, aimed at balancing the budget, led the economy to disastrous consequences. The country was shaken by strikes, riots, coups, terrorist acts associated with a sharp polarization of socio-political forces. The imbalance of the Weimar state machine led to its death, which happened as a result of the establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Germany in 1933. Until 1933, the German economy was a market economy without traces of centralized control.
1.3 Fascists rise to power
State intervention in the economy and its anti-crisis regulation in the 1930s. occurred in all developed countries. But in terms of their socio-economic orientation, goals and methods, these processes differed sharply in the two groups of countries that emerged at that time. In democratically equipped states, the most productive was held in the United States " New Deal»President F. Roosevelt. It was aimed at improving and strengthening market economy and was accompanied by social reforms that raised the standard of living of the population.
The complete opposite was the fascist-totalitarian regime, which established itself in the same 1930s. in Germany. By subordinating the entire economy to the goals of gaining European and world domination, he brought to naught the foundations of a market economy. This regime existed in Germany for more than 12 years, from January 1933 to May 1945. The beginnings of this regime appeared in the early 1920s. in Munich and in subsequent years, Nazism began to rapidly gain strength. Several factors contributed to this. One factor is personal, when the emerging fascist movement acquired a leader in the person of A. Hitler, who organized the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany and formulated a program that became the basis of the fascist-totalitarian regime. Another factor is economic, in the form of growing discontent among the population, first with Germany's reparation obligations, and then with the economic crisis that hit the country hard, when a number of large banks collapsed, 68,000 enterprises went bankrupt and closed, and more than 7 million people found themselves without work. With many of them, the fascist demagogy with its slogans of the revival of Germany received a corresponding response. Finally, the support of Hitler by large industrialists and bankers who were dissatisfied with the old parliamentary order was of great importance. They helped Hitler rise to power by supplying him with substantial funds.
In 1933, the Nazi Party won a majority in the Reichstag, German President Hindenburg appointed Hitler Reich Chancellor and instructed him to form a government. Having united the posts of chancellor and president after the death of Hindenburg, Hitler became the sole ruler of Germany, the head of the fascist-totalitarian dictatorship of domination.
2. Militarization of the German economy
2.1 German corporate economy
In 1933, a fascist regime was established in Germany, which preferred a way out of the crisis with the concentration of even greater power in the hands of the ruling monopoly circles through the establishment of a centralized economic management system with elements of a market economy. Germany's choice of a course towards the centralization of economic management is explained not only economic reasons. Germany, having experienced severe inflation after the First World War, psychologically could not have chosen an English type of regulated money policy, which implies a floating exchange rate with the actions of the Currency Stabilization Fund, regulation of the ratio of price levels and moderate control of foreign trade. But Germany had its own experience of using the model of "war socialism" with predominantly centralized management of economic processes instead of market regulation. German economic theory was greatly influenced by:
List's theory “The principle of economic nationalism”, the essence of which was that any nation should strive for economic self-sufficiency, and from abroad you can take only what is not in your own country (the principle of economic autarky);
Bakke's theory "The concept of large spaces, western economic blocks". Future world economy, according to this theory, should consist of economic blocks that would be created on a racial basis. It was assumed that there would be highly developed blocks and appendage blocks;
The theories of Feder, Brinkman "Corporate Economics" proposed a significant strengthening of the functions of the corporate state, realizing a national goal without social contradictions of the intra-economic system due to the elimination of non-Aryan races from the economic life and a sharp increase economic functions corporate state.
The principle of autarky (economic self-sufficiency) lies at the center of the organization of the corporate regime. Germany imagined its future as a powerful industrial power with integrated into its economy, located around raw materials and food zones with racial homogeneity of the population, providing it with the necessary production resources. The concept of the corporate regime served as a theoretical justification for the militarization of the economy with an increase in the military budget, the intensification of the exploitation of the working people and the political expansion of German imperialism, which strove for a redivision of the world.
2.2 CENTRALIZED ECONOMIC MECHANISM
The main content of the economic policy of fascism was the general militarization. The militarization of the economy filled Germany throughout the 1930s. The first actions in this regard were taken in the field of international relations. Immediately after the establishment of the Hitlerite dictatorship, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations (it was admitted to it in 1926) and thus considered itself freed from all international obligations that previously bound it. In 1935, universal conscription was restored in the country, and its armed forces, the so-called Wehrmacht, began to grow rapidly. On the eve of the Second World War, the Wehrmacht numbered about 3 million people, then during the war its number increased to 11 million.
After 1933, the German economy increasingly acquired the features of a centrally controlled economy based on plans and orders, in which entrepreneurs became mere executors. For the period 1932-1937. industrial production increased by 102%, national income doubled, unemployment fell to 1 million, which was regarded by many as an economic miracle.
In Germany, a totalitarian economic management system was created. The public sector of the economy has grown significantly. The source was the confiscation of enterprises and funds from the owners of "non-Aryan origin", mainly Jews. By 1939, about 25% of the total share capital was confiscated, and if in 1932 the fixed capital of the public sector was estimated at 13.2 billion Reichsmarks, then in 1939 it increased to 17 billion. The Nazi leadership used the seized property to include ee in military production.
In the private sector, the free market has also ceased to serve as a regulator of the economic process. It was replaced by a rigidly centralized economic mechanism, on the basis of which all issues of production volumes, product range, and commodity prices were decided. In June 1933, the General Council of the German Economy was organized, which included 12 representatives of the largest companies in Germany. Entrepreneurial unions are united in a corporation "the imperial estate of German industry." After the passage of a law in 1937 to dissolve corporations with incomes of less than $40,000, small entrepreneurs gradually turned into those who live on wages. At the same time, large corporations received additional support. The Ministry of Economy forcibly created new cartels and ordered firms to merge with existing ones. All enterprises were required to be members of associations, seven main imperial groups were created: industrial, energy, handicraft, trade, banking, insurance, and transport.
To find a way to the highest official, bribes reached huge numbers. But this suited the entrepreneurs, since their income from rearmament grew rapidly and reached $ 5 billion in 1938 against 175 million marks in 1932
It retained only very large firms with a high "military potential", capable of fulfilling large military orders of the state. The leaders of the fascist party often became the owners of such associations. So, G. Goering headed the largest company, which consisted of iron mines and metallurgical enterprises, coal mines, machine-building and military plants.
The Supreme Economic Council was declared the supreme economic body of the country, which led the economy through direct administrative dictates. Along with the fascist leaders, it included major industrialists and bankers, such as Krupp, Thyssen, Schroeder and others. But the Council itself, like other organs of power, "closed" on Hitler as the last, decisive authority, on the "volitional decisions" of the Fuhrer.
All this required an appropriate restructuring of industrial production, and the created command and control system fully met this task. Heavy industry has been predominantly developed. Average for the 1930s three-fifths of all investments were directed to it, and these investments made it possible in 1934 to reach the pre-crisis level, and in 1939 to exceed it by 50%. The leading place in heavy industry was occupied by mechanical engineering, which provided about 25% of all industrial output. In general, on the eve of the Second World War, Germany accounted for 13% of world industrial production, and every year its military orientation loomed more and more clearly. If in 1932 620 million Reichsmarks were invested in military production, then in 1938 - already 15 50 million, that is, in six years the volume of funds absorbed by this production increased 25 times. There was no comparison between capital investments in the transport sector (they increased by 4 times), and even more so in light industry and in housing construction.
At the same time, the problem of supplying the militarized economy with strategic raw materials required an urgent solution. The resources needed for this (oil, rubber, most non-ferrous metals, cotton) were scarce in Germany. And in order to overcome their acute shortage in 1936, a four-year "Plan for the mobilization of economic resources" was approved. It provided for the accumulation of these resources within the country through the establishment of the production of synthetic rubber, plastics, chemical fiber and other new industries and through imports from the USA, Great Britain, France and other Western countries, which Germany intensively boosted in 1930. The Soviet Union also participated in this accumulation, which, since the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact in 1939, supplied Germany with 865 thousand tons of oil, 140 thousand tons of manganese ore, 14 thousand tons of copper, more than 1 million tons of timber plus in the same dimensions asbestos, phosphate, platinum and other materials. The last train with raw materials crossed the Soviet border towards Germany a few hours before the start of its attack, on the night of June 22, 1941. Germany used these deliveries to re-equip the main strike forces - motorized infantry, tank units and aviation in a short time.
Enterprises listed as militarily "decisive" were primarily supplied with loans and labor.
The German economy began to gain momentum, the main "locomotive" of the German economy was military production. The budget of Germany began to grow from year to year. Here are the figures for his income and expenses.
Years Income Expenses Taxes Other income Loans
1933/34 46,5 15,3 11,4 3,5 0,4
1934/35 52,8 17,4 13,4 3,6 0,4
1935/36 59,1 23,2 13,0 3,8 6,4
1936/37 65,8 25,8 16,3 3,9 5,6
1937/38 73,8 29,1 18,8 4,8 5,5
1938/39 82,1 39,4 22,9 5,3 11,2
Total 380.1 150.2 95.8 24.9 29.5
Figures are given in billions of marks. Germany's military expenditures for the pre-war period are determined by the figure of 90 billion marks. This figure was first announced before the war by the German government.
During the six pre-war years, the Hitlerite government managed not only to bring the country out of the crisis, but also to create a powerful modern economy that could ensure the conduct of a large-scale modern war.
2.3 FINANCIAL AND CREDIT PROBLEMS
Financial and credit problems occupied a very important place in the management of the fascist economy. They were solved with the help of taxes, duties, loans (internal debt in just two years (1938-1939) quadrupled - from 12 to 48 billion marks), but the main role belonged to the Central Bank of Issue. This bank was private credit institution, but in fact completely subordinate to the state, its economic policy. Militarization required huge sums of money, and on the eve of the war central bank was made obligated to make unconditional loans to the state. There were not enough funds, and the bank was granted an unrestricted right to issue. Huge indebtedness forced the use of the printing press, funds from frozen foreign accounts, direct control over foreign trade and a monopoly on trade in national and foreign means of payment for these purposes. The monopoly was carried out as follows.
In the field of capital movement moratoriums on the payment of external debts and transfer moratoriums were introduced, allowing payments to be made in national currency, which was to be deposited in special accounts. For all means of payment in foreign currency (banknotes, checks, bank transfers, securities, shares, bills, etc.) a strict motto control was introduced, carried out by the National Bank. Recipients of foreign means of payment had to make an official declaration. The Bank provided foreign means of payment within the limits established by law with the obligatory presentation of commercial documents (trade licenses, documents on trade agreements and operations, trips abroad, etc.) confirming their need. Foreign means of payment were subject to delivery to the National Bank or institutions specially created for currency exchange.
The Stabilization Law established the official level of the exchange rate. On its basis, the cost of goods, determined in the clearing agreement, was estimated. Entries in both credit and debt items were made in balance sheet items National Bank. In addition, Germany used multiple exchange rates or differentiated currencies. The Deutsche Mark had at one time 237 courses. To its own advantage, Germany used various exchange rates when negotiating commercial agreements with the Danubian countries. In relation to the free exchange rate of the dollar in bilateral agreements, the mark could have different rates. The currency monopoly system contributed to a reduction in the supply of currency by the National Bank and an increase in its demand. As a result, the official level of the exchange rate turned out to be overvalued compared to the real rate, and along with the official market, a “black” market functioned. Periodic devaluation official exchange rate temporarily restored balance. In 1940, there was a "devaluation" of the mark in clearing settlements with Romania by 42%, with Greece - by 23%.
To finance armaments, taxes were raised, long-term loans were issued, and deficit financing was used. A credit system was created in the country in the absence of financial reserves. monetary unit in the country since 1924 there was a Reichsmark. Until the end of the 1920s. she had gold backing, which fell sharply in the conditions of the economic crisis, and during the 1930s, due to the unrestrained issue of the Reichsmark, it rapidly depreciated. Credits to industry and loans to the state were provided in just such a depreciated currency. One of the forms of financing the armaments program was the issuance of government short-term interest-free bills and so-called "promissory notes for the creation of works." In 1933-1938. was issued for 12 billion marks of "mefoveksel" and "tax warrants". They did not have any security, but were guaranteed by the state and had to be accepted by banks without fail. These bills were used exclusively for the rearmament of the German economy and did not appear either in the bulletins of the National Bank or in the state budget, which made it possible to keep the extent of the rearmament secret. While budget revenues from taxes and duties amounted to only about 17 billion marks
The foreign exchange reserves of the Reichsbank were comparatively small. The gold reserves of Germany amounted to only about 900 million marks, it was only enough for the first year and a half of the fascist dictatorship, so the main source of funding was an increase in all kinds of extortions from the workers: direct and indirect taxes, forcibly placed state loans, extortions to the "labor front" fund . The Nazis widely resorted to direct robbery of the population and public organizations. So, they seized the cash desks of the disbanded bourgeois parties and the crushed trade unions.
On June 12, 1933, the law "On the Protection of the German National economy", which authorized the robbery of persons of "non-Aryan origin" and all objectionable to the Nazis. According to Schacht, thanks to another law ("On high treason"), 100 million marks were obtained.
In the field of foreign trade War Economics General Schacht demonstrated, to the surprise of the orthodox, that "the more you owe a country, the more you can do business with it." Trade deals favorable for Germany were concluded. Contingenting was introduced with bilateral clearing, carried out in the form of agreements between states by means of non-cash payments, which set off mutual claims and obligations without payment in gold or transfer foreign exchange. Such a system hinders the establishment of the most advantageous directions for the flow of international trade, since bilateral equilibrium between imports and exports is never achieved and there are always leftovers that are difficult to translate. The rigidity of the system could be mitigated by issuing loans in the event of seasonal imbalances, or by adopting the principle of private compensation and other measures, but in general there was always a delay in the netting of commercial transactions. As a result, each participant in the operation waited not only for the appearance of cash on the clearing account, but also for his turn in accordance with the pre-established serial number of his transaction. This forced the capitalist to resort to credit and increase transaction costs.
Investments have become the controlling parameter of economic development, whose value increased with time. Since the size and direction of investment increasingly depended on the central governing bodies, and not on entrepreneurs, then, as centralization increased, prices, interest, money and banks increasingly lost their role as regulators of economic development. Banks began to simply serve the centralized distribution of investments and the payment relationships of enterprises that needed little bank credit, and prices, interest and money turned into countable quantities.
2.4 Agricultural policy
Agrarian policy was an integral part of state-Nazi regulation. In the more than 80 years that have passed since the agrarian reforms of the mid-19th century, German peasants have adapted to market economy. Now, since 1933, work for the market has been replaced by forced work. First of all, the new government was engaged in restoring order in agriculture, which corresponded to its desire for self-sufficiency in Germany with food. Laws were passed that prevented land speculation and reorganized the structure of production and marketing of agricultural products. All peasant farms and agricultural cooperatives were united in the "estate of the breadwinners of the Reich", called "soldiers of the food front", their products were strictly registered, and each peasant was obliged to supply most of it to the state at extremely low prices dictated from above. The law "On hereditary yards" issued in 1933 declared farms from 7.5 to 125 hectares inalienable and exempt from inheritance and land taxes. Such farms were inherited only by the eldest son. Since the hereditary yards were transferred only to the eldest son, all other children of the peasants had to get "living space" in the ranks of the army with weapons in their hands, conquer new lands. Farmers, who owned small plots of land, bore the brunt of the duties of preparing food supplies for war. They were instructed what to sow, rent and at what prices. They could not even sell chicken without the permission of the authorities. All the work of farmers was regulated by the food administration of the Reich. A 20% increase in wholesale prices for agricultural products was achieved, but the benefit to farmers was offset by higher prices for machinery and fertilizers. Food self-sufficiency reached 83%.
2.5 Preparing for war the German economy
At the same time, the German imperialists launched the country's military and economic preparations. They took into account the experience of the First World War and long before the Nazis came to power (in 1924-1929), with the active participation of American and British capital, they created a military-industrial potential. Therefore, the rise in military production, which was noted after the establishment of the Nazi dictatorship, was a continuation of the previous course, but with the use of new methods and incomparable pace and scope. In the person of Hitler, the German monopolies found what they had been looking for for a long time.
As chairman of the union of German industrialists, G. Krupp presented to Hitler a project for the reorganization of the country's industry in order to accelerate the rearmament of the Reichswehr. His firm was one of the first to start mass production of military products. “Instead of trucks, tanks appeared on conveyors, and thousands of steel blanks began to turn into gun barrels. At the Kiel shipyards, Krupp began the extensive construction of submarines, minesweepers and destroyers ... When Goering announced the revival of the Luftwaffe, Krupp was already openly testing on the coast of the Baltic Sea new anti-aircraft gun.
In April 1933 the head the largest firm Thyssen, on the direct instructions of Hitler, held a meeting with representatives of the aviation industry, at which it was decided to sharply increase the production of combat aircraft of all types: from single-seat fighters to large bombers. The growth rate of the German military industry can be judged from the data on the production of aircraft. In 1931, only 13 of them were produced, in 1933 - 368, in 1935 - 3183 pieces. These were predominantly military aircraft or such "civilian" ones that could easily be converted into military ones.
In July 1933, the question of the production of tanks and the choice of the most correct technical solutions for the development of models intended for mass production was discussed.
In 1938, a ten-year shipbuilding program was adopted. During this period, it was planned to put into operation 10 large battleships, 15 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 49 cruisers, 158 destroyers and destroyers, 248 submarines.
The old enterprises soon ceased to satisfy the needs of the Reichswehr. The construction of new ones began immediately. In the first three years of the fascist dictatorship, more than 300 military plants were put into operation, including 55-60 aircraft, 45 automobile and armored, 70 military chemical, 15 military shipbuilding and 80 artillery.
Of great importance in the system of measures to create a military economy was the expansion of the raw material base, which was carried out in many ways: exploration and organization of mining within the country, the forced withdrawal of non-ferrous metal products from the population, limiting the consumption of military-strategic raw materials in civilian industries, and increased importation of it. from abroad, the development and implementation of all kinds of substitutes. For all this, up to 10 billion marks were already spent in the first years of the fascist dictatorship.
The amount of capital investment in military production can be seen from Table 1.
Table 1. Investment in the German economy
Essentially important in the preparation for the war was the construction of roads of military strategic importance. Some highways, crossing Germany from west to east, provided a quick transfer of troops from one theater of operations to another. Expenses for the construction of railways increased from 805 million marks in 1932 to 1,876 million marks in 1935.
The militarization of the economy contributed to the intensification of the process of concentration of capital and the omnipotence of monopolies. According to the data of the German Statistical Office, at the end of 1935 the share of concerns in the total amount of share capital was: in the coal industry - 82.4%, in ferrous metallurgy - 76.6%, in the production of electricity - 85.2%. Even then, the concerns controlled 85% of the total share capital. The Krupa concern was a gigantic complex of metallurgical, machine-building, tank, artillery, automobile, aircraft and shipbuilding plants. Its turnover increased from 191 million marks in 1932/33 to 896 million marks in 1936/37. During this time, the turnover of the Siemens and IG Farbenindustri concerns doubled, and the Junkers concern eight to nine times. The Zeiss concern took an active part in the armament of fascist Germany, which manufactured precision optical instruments, so necessary in artillery, aviation, and on warships.
Part of the investment in military production came from the profits of the monopolies, which thus increased their fixed capital. The profits of the largest military concerns grew especially rapidly. Table 2 shows this.
Table 2. Growth of profits of the Krupp concern
As early as 1933, J. Schacht, the Minister of Economy, organized an accurate accounting of enterprises that were most important militarily. Economic plans were developed for the production of 200 major types of military materials, as well as a plan for preparing agriculture for war. In 1935, they were prepared and sent to the places ration cards. Schacht was worried that they would not become known abroad, because "such an event would be regarded as preparation for the upcoming war soon and thus as proof of the aggressive intentions of Germany"
With the rapid development of the war industry, economic preparation included: the achievement of autarky in the supply of raw materials; uniform dispersal of industrial facilities throughout the country; an increase in the production capacity of enterprises serving and feeding the war; carrying out technical reconstruction and rationalization in militarily important branches of industry.
Military production and spending on armaments for 1932 -1938. increased 10 times and before the start of the war amounted to 58% of the state budget.
The slogan "guns instead of butter" has acquired a real meaning. A direct ban on investment in industries that produced consumer goods was established. Labor service in 1938 became universal. Since 1935, special work tickets were introduced in order to record and mobilize the workforce. The working day lengthened, and on the eve of the war it reached 10-14 hours.
In 1938, Germany became a powerful military power and in industrial production came first in Europe and second in the world.
With the adoption of the four-year "Plan for the Mobilization of Economic Resources" in September 1936, Germany moved to a system of military total economy. A month earlier, Hitler had issued a secret memorandum on economic preparations for war. It ended with a very definite directive: "1) in four years we must have a combat-ready army, 2) in four years the German economy must be ready for war." Thus, the date of the unleashing of the world war was already determined - no later than 1940.
In 1936, an agency was created to implement a four-year plan for transferring the entire German economy to a war footing, headed by Goering. Central planning affected the distribution of resources, limited entrepreneurial freedom and the formation of new enterprises, and eliminated competition.
By this time state property Germany has reached 13% share capital. At the same time, the problem of supplying the militarized economy with strategic raw materials required an urgent solution. The resources needed for this (oil, rubber, most non-ferrous metals, cotton) were scarce in Germany. It provided for the accumulation of these resources within the country through the establishment of their production and through imports from the USA, Great Britain, France and other Western countries, which Germany intensively boosted in 1930. The Soviet Union also participated in this accumulation, which, since the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact in 1939, supplied Germany with 865 thousand tons of oil, 140 thousand tons of manganese ore, 14 thousand tons of copper, more than 1 million tons of timber plus in the same dimensions asbestos, phosphate, platinum and other materials. The last train with raw materials crossed the Soviet border towards Germany a few hours before the start of its attack, on the night of June 22, 1941. Germany used these deliveries to re-equip the main strike forces - motorized infantry, tank units and aviation in a short time.
Imports were reduced to a minimum, cartel agreements were banned, food prices were set by the state, strict control over salary, dividends were limited to 6% per annum, huge factories were built. Industrial enterprises were directly subordinated to the leadership from the center, and the industrialists became the "cogs" of the military machine. The centralized distribution of raw materials and semi-finished products was carried out by the central authorities with the help of rationing. The distribution of the labor force was also regulated by the central authorities and only partly depended on the plans of employers and workers.
2.6 Outcomes of the war
Already during the war years, the Imperial Ministry of Armaments and Ammunition was created, which formed new industrial associations in relation to its goals, existing in parallel with the imperial ones. The new ministry, in accordance with the general line of comprehensive militarization of the state apparatus, gradually absorbed most of the functions of the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Labor, etc. The expansion of military production took place due to the colossal growth of public debt, increased taxes, and a reduction in public consumption.
By the summer of 1941 The production capacities of Nazi Germany at the expense of European allies and occupied countries increased 7 times for iron ore, 2.2 times for steel, and 1.7 times for aluminum. From the very beginning of the war, the industry of the Reich worked at full capacity for military needs. Germany's successes at the first stage of the war gave her the opportunity to use the economic potential of the conquered countries.
In 1943, its share in total cost gross output was 80%. Almost 20% of the working population worked in military industries. Germany satisfied the need for labor through the forced labor of prisoners and deportees from other countries.
Measures to militarize the economy are reflected in the sphere
finance. In Germany, the cost of the war increased from 38.03 billion marks in the financial year 1939/40 to 105 billion marks in 1943/44. The share of these expenditures in the total budget expenditures during the war years amounted to 63%. However, despite the complete militarization, the German economy was unable to fully meet the needs of the front. From the end of 1943 difficulties appeared in all branches of the economy. Links between individual economic complexes are broken, there is a shortage of raw materials, fuel, human and financial resources, industrial production is sharply reduced, and inflation is growing. The sown areas have decreased, the gross grain harvest is sharply declining. Germany solved the food problem at the expense of the occupied territories. Food consumption has dropped sharply. The budget deficit was eliminated by issuing paper money, which led to a sharp rise in inflation. The destruction of labor resources was supplemented by a general financial exhaustion generated by exorbitant military spending, which consumed annually 120-150 billion marks. Huge amounts of taxes could not fill the ever-increasing gap in the expenditure side of the budget. The Nazi leadership made extensive use of internal loans and credits for this purpose, which in turn increased the already huge public debt. So, if in 1939 it was 30 billion, in 1943 - 195 billion, then already in 1945 it reached 390 billion marks. Growing cover public debt carried out mainly through the issuance of paper money. This had a devastating effect not only on the financial system, but also on the country's economy as a whole.
The war was inexorably absorbing the previously created stocks of strategic raw materials, fuel, food; the treasury was empty, and inflation was rapidly approaching 600% of the pre-war level.
They tried to put the weight of the military burden of the monopoly on the shoulders of the working people. The length of the working day increased to 16 or more hours a day, and wages from October 1940 remained unchanged. Income from direct taxation only wages workers grew from 2.1 billion marks in 1938-1939. up to 4.5 billion in 1942-1943 and 5 billion in 1943-1944.
With the expansion of the scale of hostilities, the German economy is increasingly faced with intractable problems: increasing tension in the labor market, disorganization in transport, blocking inland waterways, lack of wagons and rolling stock on railways, destruction of traditional economic ties; stopping the supply of fuel, raw materials, materials to their processing centers, overstocking finished products, the cessation of work of many enterprises.
Germany's expenses for the preparation of a world war since the seizure of power by the Nazis amounted to more than 90 billion marks, not counting the cost of maintaining the armed forces. Of these, 55 billion was spent on the production of weapons, 10 billion on the acquisition and production of strategic raw materials and the creation of their reserves, and about 25 billion on state military investments.
In April 1945, the military-economic machine of fascist Germany collapsed under the blows of the combined forces of the anti-Hitler coalition. So, Germany's struggle for the "redistribution of the world" led to two devastating world wars.
Conclusion
Until 1933, the German economy was a market economy. The labor market was dominated by a "bilateral partial monopoly" - the German trade unions and the union of employers, where the struggle for power unfolded. Hindenburg's rigid restrictive policy aimed at balancing the budget contributed to the growth of unemployment and the rise of Nazism.
The fascist regime established in Germany in 1933 saw a way out of the crisis with the concentration of even greater power in the hands of the monopolies through the establishment of a centralized system of economic management with elements of a market economy. In this system, there is no place for unemployment, but for the formation of investment, consumption can be forced to decrease and the deficit of consumer goods can grow.
Germany's choice of economic course was greatly influenced by the ideas of the corporate regime, striving for the political expansion of German imperialism. To realize its goals, a centralized management of the economy was needed, aimed at the militarization of the economy and involving autarky, forced association of workers in corporations and a nationwide idea that eliminated non-Aryan races from economic life.
In fascist Germany, a moratorium was established on the payment of state debt obligations, direct control over foreign trade and a strict monopoly on trade in national and foreign means of payment. The need for autarky dictated strict regulation of agriculture. Public works to provide employment for the unemployed increased sharply through huge investments aimed at militarizing the economy. To finance them, taxes were raised, long-term loans were issued and a system of state loan with "mefo" bills for printing unsecured banknotes.
As a result of this policy, unemployment disappeared in Germany within a year, and economic growth rates, especially in heavy industries, went up sharply. This model gave an instant positive effect, distinguishing it from other models.
Nevertheless, despite the excellent indicators of economic growth, Germany stood on the verge of an economic catastrophe: we should not forget that its prosperity was based on an artificially hyped military conjuncture, the curtailment of the market based on the forced over-centralization of the national economy. The continuation of the policy of militarization of the national economy not only did not solve the problem of restoring optimal economic proportions, expanding the domestic and foreign markets, and improving financial system, harmonization of social relations, on the contrary, drove these problems to a standstill. Only the unleashing of external aggression could postpone the inevitable economic catastrophe.
However, with the end of the war, a reverse process was observed, which indicates the extraordinary nature of this phenomenon. This can be confirmed by the refusal of a number of countries to use state-monopoly capitalism with a centralized economic mechanism and return them to market system. Its effectiveness was confirmed by the presence of rather long periods of rapid economic growth in these countries, which were called the German, Japanese, Italian "economic miracle".
List of used literature
1. Berezin I.S. Short story economic development / Tutorial. Moscow: Russian Business Literature, 1999.
2. Bor M.Z. History of the world economy. Moscow: Delo i Service, 1998.
3. Burderon R. Fascism: ideology and practice. - M. 1983. - 165 p.
4. Zhelev Zh. Fascism and the totalitarian state. - M., 1991. -334 p.
5. History of the world economy. Under the editorship of G.B. Pole. M.: UNITI, 1999.
6. Essays economic reforms. Ed. Yu.F. Vorobiev and others - M., 1993.
Introduction… 3
reasons for the birth of fascism… 4
Cradle of Fascism - Italy… 6
The rise of fascism in Germany… 11
Fascism in other countries… 17
Modern fascism… 20
CONCLUSION… 27
With the establishment of fascism, there is no change in the class essence of state power, and the nature of the socio-economic system does not change either. With the establishment of fascism, the most reactionary part of the bourgeoisie comes to power, which establishes a regime of direct arbitrariness and lawlessness. Being a product of the era of the general crisis of capitalism, fascism is an openly terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary and chauvinistic elements of financial capital.
reasons for the rise of fascism
The social base of fascist movements is primarily the petty bourgeoisie. It is joined by various kinds of declassed elements, as well as a significant part of the unemployed. But this does not mean at all that when fascism is established, the petty bourgeoisie comes to power. This Austro-Marxist theory was at one time widespread. Modern bourgeois scientists also often turn to it. In reality, however, the petty bourgeoisie, by virtue of the dual nature of its political psychology and its position in the system of social production, cannot itself exercise state power. The petty-bourgeois origin of many fascist leaders (Mussolini is the son of a blacksmith, Hitler is the son of a shoemaker who later became a customs official), the presence of people from this environment in important positions in the mechanism of the fascist dictatorship does not change its essence in any way. In fact, power is in the hands of the most reactionary elements of monopoly capital. Fascism is not established immediately. Before replacing the political regime, the bourgeoisie carries out a series of preparatory measures. G. M. Dimitrov said at the 7th Congress of the Comintern: “Before the establishment of a fascist dictatorship, bourgeois governments usually go through a number of preparatory stages and carry out a number of reactionary measures that help fascism come to power directly.”
Fascization of the political regime is usually carried out in the following main directions: open violation and trampling of bourgeois-democratic rights and freedoms; persecution and prohibition of communist and workers' parties, as well as progressive trade unions and public organizations; the merger of the state apparatus with the monopolies; militarization of the state apparatus; the decline of the role of central and local representative institutions; the growth of discretionary powers of the executive bodies of state power; merging parties and trade unions with the state apparatus; consolidation of previously disparate fascist and reactionary-extremist parties and organizations; the emergence of various kinds of right-wing extremist movements (“National Front in France, the Italian Social Movement, etc.).
In the conditions of the general crisis of capitalism, and especially at its present stage, elements of fascisization of one degree or another take place in all bourgeois countries that have reached the stage of state-monopoly capitalism.
Fascism as a special kind of bourgeois political regime has a number of features that distinguish it from other authoritarian regimes.
Fascism not only completely destroys bourgeois democracy, but also theoretically "substantiates" the necessity of establishing totalitarianism. Instead of the liberal-democratic concept of individualism, fascism puts forward the concept of the nation, the people, whose interests always, everywhere and in everything prevail over the interests of individuals.
Fascism has broken in theory and practice with all the political and legal principles of bourgeois democracy, such as popular sovereignty, the supremacy of parliament, separation of powers, electivity, local self-government, guarantees of individual rights, the rule of law.
The establishment of an openly terrorist regime under fascism is accompanied by the most rabid social demagogy, which is elevated to the rank of official ideology. Speculating on demagogic criticism of the most flagrant vices of capitalism, fascism always puts forward pseudo-socialist slogans, juggles with one or another variety of "national socialism". Fascism theoretically "substantiates" the absence of antagonistic classes in bourgeois society. Instead of classes, he introduces the concept of corporations. Corporativism proclaims "cooperation of labor and capital", in which the entrepreneur is no longer an exploiter, but acts as a "captain of the industry", a leader who performs the most important social function. Corporations allegedly cooperate with each other and are in a certain subordination. According to fascist ideology, each corporation that occupies its proper place in the hierarchical system performs its own “social function”. Corporativist theories preach the unity and solidity of the nation. Thus, the Mussolini Charter of Labor (April 1927) stated: “The Italian nation is an organism whose goals, life and means of action exceed the strength and duration of the goals, life and means of action of the individuals and groups that make up this organism. It represents a moral, political and economic unity and is carried out entirely in a fascist state.” In fact, under the conditions of fascist “moral-political unity”, the caste system is being revived on an imperialist basis, under which all citizens are distributed among corporations subordinate to the fascist state, and class struggle and trade union activity are prohibited and declared a state crime.
It is social demagogy and, above all, the preaching of “national socialism” that distinguish fascism from other authoritarian regimes, under which bourgeois democracy is also liquidated, but this is done without “theoretical justification” and not under “socialist” slogans.
At present, fascism in its "classical" form does not exist anywhere. However, various kinds of tyrannical regimes have become quite widespread, under which all institutions of bourgeois democracy are completely destroyed. "Where the usual forms of suppression of the working people fail, imperialism implants and supports tyrannical regimes for direct military reprisal against progressive forces" "".
The cradle of fascism is Italy.
Earlier than in other European countries, fascism established itself in Italy. Here he was born.
Among the great European victorious powers, Italy was the most exhausted by the First World War. industry, finance, Agriculture were in a desperate situation. Nowhere was there such unemployment and poverty. Nowhere was there such an upsurge in the strike struggle.
Everything spoke of a revolutionary situation: the rapid growth of trade unions, the extraordinary victory of the socialists in the parliamentary elections of 1919 (31% of the vote), the seizure of plants and factories by workers, landowners' land by peasants and farm laborers.
After the First World War, many disillusioned front-line soldiers were inclined to blame parliament and democracy for all troubles, sought to militarize civilian life and created detachments of “arditi” (dared men). On this wave, Mussolini in March 1919 formed the "Union of Struggle" - "Fashio di compattimento", the main goal of which he proclaimed the struggle for the interests of the nation. deputies. I am sure that parliament is a bubonic plague that poisons the blood of the nation. It must be exterminated."
The seizures of factories and factories were a response to the onset of entrepreneurs (lockouts; suspension of production). The movement reaches its greatest scope at the end of the summer of 1920. Dozens of enterprises (in Milan, Turin and other cities) came under the control of workers (managers chosen by them). Industrial output increased. There was a strict order. Equipment, buildings, raw materials, etc. were carefully guarded
In Turin, where the workers were most organized, the enterprises remained under their control for three weeks.
The revolutionary situation forced the bourgeois governments of Italy to important reforms. Among them, we note: a law on social insurance of unemployment, a decree on the admissibility of unauthorized seizure of uncultivated land.
In 1921, the Italian Communist Party was founded.
At the congress of the Socialist Party in Livorno, the party split into centrists (the Serrati group) and communists. The latter spoke in favor of joining the Third International.
Soon, after the end of the World War, the first fascist organizations arose in Italy. Composed of various elements, they initially came up with a program designed to win the working people away from the socialist movement.
The program was so false that later, when the Nazis came to power, it was not allowed to mention it. They talked about the 8-hour working day, about universal, direct and equal suffrage for men and women, about freedom of the press and even the equality of nations
The very word "fascio", from which "fascism" comes, was borrowed from the peasant organizations of Sicily, who used it in the sense of "unity"
The revolutionary events of 1920 forced the fascists to take the class position that corresponded to their real goals.
Fighting groups of fascists, led by demobilized and embittered army officers, sacked and destroyed people's houses created with the money of workers, workers' clubs, printing houses belonging to the progressive press, etc. Italy has never known anything like it.
The government not only did not interfere with the Nazis, but even encouraged them. Fascism receives powerful patrons in the form of the General Confederation of Industrialists and landowners' unions. Along with patronage, money flows. The number of fascist organizations is increasing.
In 1922, taking advantage of the weakness of the government (and even more of a split in the labor movement), the fascist leadership creates a committee to seize power and sends 40,000 of its "black shirts" to march on Rome.
The government had every opportunity to quickly and finally stop the putsch: it was enough to open fire "for a quarter of an hour" "as General Badoglio suggested to the king.
But the king and his camarilla made a different decision: the head of the Jackal party, Mussolini, was appointed Prime Minister of Italy.
The new government began with the abolition of the decree on the right of the peasants to seize uncultivated land, with reactionary changes in labor legislation, with the establishment of cruelty against trade unions, with the persecution of democratic organizations. Fascist combat detachments became part of the repressive government apparatus.
Still not daring to disperse Parliament. Mussolini and his clique passed a law according to which automatically receives two-thirds of the deputy mandates of the party for which one-fourth of the voters will vote. This act, surprising in its cynicism, made it possible to foresee what Italy would become after the elections.
Election results ( 1924 ) suspiciously exactly coincided with the plans of Mussolini: from 12 million votes 4 million were considered pro-fascist. Fascist militia - the main culprit of the "victory" - triumphed.
But democracy was not killed. In the person of the socialist Mateotti, a deputy, orator, a courageous man, she exposed the comedy of elections and at the same time the venality and corruption of the leaders of the new regime, especially Mussolini himself.
The Nazis killed Mateotti. The country was swept by a wave of indignation. The working masses were ready to sweep away fascism. I had to seize the moment. But the position that had influence was the socialists, the republicans. "Polari" (Catholic Party) - chose a tactically erroneous withdrawal from parliament, a boycott of the latter.
Having dealt with the opposition and strengthened in power, Mussolini's government goes on the offensive against democracy. By the January Law of 1926, it arrogates to itself the right to issue decrees in addition to Parliament. Following this, the fascist regime unfolds in all its glory.
"Extraordinary laws" followed one after the other. They banned trade unions (with the exception of state fascist ones) and political parties (with the exception of one fascist one); they reintroduced the death penalty for “political crimes”; they introduced emergency justice (tribunals) and administrative (out of home) expulsion; the communist party was outlawed; bodies local government were abolished: government-appointed officials (podestas) took their place.
Democratic freedoms were abandoned. The opposition press is closed. Thousands of democrats were killed with or without trial, thrown into concentration camps, where the same death awaited them, only slow and painful.
Any new intensification of terror was usually provoked by some kind of "assassination attempt", "conspiracy", etc. In November 1926, a 15-year-old boy was killed on the spot for an attempt on Mussolini's life. A wave of arrests, death sentences, etc. immediately followed.
Rice. 1. (Mussolini), [Amilcare Andrea] (1883-1945), founder of Italian fascism, head of the Italian fascist party and government of Italy in 1922-43 and the puppet government of the so-called. Republic of Salo in 1943-45.
The political regime of Italian fascism was determined faster than its political system took shape.
The Piedmont Statute known to us was not repealed, but there was no correspondence between it and what became under fascism. The monarchy was preserved, but in such a pitiful form that no one took it into account. It was believed that Mussolini was responsible to the king, it was even written in the laws, but no one believed, least of all the king. Any mention of the Duce's responsibility was not recommended. This was followed by the gendarmerie.
Before others, the tendency of "leaderism", a one-man dictatorship, was determined.
Already the law of 1925 “On the powers of the head of government” made the prime minister irresponsible, independent of parliament. His colleagues in the ministry, his ministers, have become mere assistants, responsible to their head; they were appointed and removed at the will of the latter.
For several years, Mussolini did not dare to act openly only by violence, but in 1926 he finally destroyed the remnants of the opposition in the country. He issued emergency laws, according to which all political parties, except for the fascist, were banned and dissolved, and their deputies were expelled from parliament. At the same time, Mussolini created a fascist tribunal that condemned from 1927 to 1937 about 3 thousand anti-fascists. The Grand Fascist Council became the highest legislative body in the country. The activities of free trade unions, all democratic organizations were banned, open terror began to be carried out, denunciations were encouraged, citizens were kindled suspicion of each other. The old morality was declared a bourgeois relic, and the new one consisted in the complete subordination of the interests of the individual to the fascist state.
Hitler's coming to power in Germany in 1933 provided Mussolini with a worthy ally. Confident in his support, Mussolini launched a war with Ethiopia. Based on an alliance with Hitler and the signed Rome agreements, Mussolini proceeded to implement his aggressive plans in Europe - in 1936 he organized a military-fascist rebellion against republican Spain, as a result of which the regime of General Francisco Franco was established there.
Signed May 22, 1939 in Berlin "Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy." The preamble to the pact contained allegations that both parties were allegedly united by the desire to cooperate "in the field of ensuring peace in Europe", that they continue to be determined to jointly "advocate for the preservation of their living space and the maintenance of peace", to fight for "preservation of the foundations European culture".
A large performance given by the National Socialist dictator for the fascist Duce in Berlin at the Olympic Stadium, September 29, 1937. In the light of the spotlights, the emblems of both dictators are a swastika and mentor beams. Between them is Mussolini speaking to the masses. The state visit of the Italian dictator became a triumphal celebration of the German-Italian brotherhood. Axis Berlin - Rome was finally established.
Rise of fascism in germany
Fascism appeared in Germany immediately after the end of the First World War as one of the varieties of reactionary militaristic nationalist currents, when anti-liberal, anti-democratic movements acquired a pan-European character. In 1920, Hitler came up with a program of "25 points", which later became the program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Permeated with nationalistic, chauvinistic ideas of the superiority of the German nation, the program demanded revenge in order to restore "justice trampled on by Versailles."
In 1921, the organizational foundations of the fascist party were formed, based on the so-called Fuhrer principle, the unlimited power of the "leader" (Fuhrer). The main purpose of the creation of the party is the spread of fascist ideology, the preparation of a special terrorist apparatus to suppress democratic, anti-fascist forces and, ultimately, to seize power. In 1923, following the general strike of the German proletariat, the Nazis made a direct attempt to seize state power (the "beer putsch"). The failure of the coup forces the fascist leaders to change the tactics of the struggle for power. Since 1925, the "battle for the Reichstag" begins by creating a mass base of the fascist party. Already in 1928, this tactic was bearing its first fruits, the Nazis received 12 seats in the Reichstag. In 1932, in terms of the number of mandates, the Fascist Party receives more seats than any other party represented in the Reichstag.
January 30, 1933 Hitler, by order of Hindenburg, takes the post of Chancellor of Germany. He comes to power as the head of a coalition government, since his party, even with a few allies, did not have a majority in the Reichstag. This circumstance did not matter, however, since Hitler's cabinet was the "president's office" and Hitler was the "presidential chancellor." At the same time, the results of the 1932 elections gave a certain halo of legitimacy to his chancellorship. A variety of social strata and population groups voted for Hitler. Hitler's broad social base was created at the expense of those who, after the defeat of Germany, had the ground cut out from under their feet, that same bewildered aggressive crowd, feeling deceived, having lost their life prospect along with their property, experiencing fear of tomorrow. He managed to use the social, political and psychological disorder of these people, showing them the way to save himself and the humiliated fatherland, promising various circles and groups of the population everything they wanted: monarchists - the restoration of the monarchy, workers - work and bread, industrialists - military orders, the Reichswehr - a new rise in connection with grandiose military plans, etc. The nationalist slogans of the Nazis attracted the Germans more than calls for "reason and patience" of the Social Democrats or for "proletarian solidarity" and the construction of "Soviet Germany" of the Communists.
Hitler came to power, relying on the direct support of the official and unofficial ruling circles and the reactionary socio-political forces behind them, who considered it necessary to establish an authoritarian regime in the country in order to put an end to the hated democracy and republic. Fearing the rising left, revolution and communism, they wanted to establish an authoritarian regime with the help of a "pocket" chancellor. Hindenburg clearly underestimated Hitler, calling him "Bohemian Corporal" behind his back. He was presented to the Germans as a "moderate". At the same time, all the scandalous, extremist activities of the NSNRP were consigned to oblivion. The first sobering up of the Germans came the day after Hitler came to power, when thousands of stormtroopers staged a formidable torchlight procession in front of the Reichstag.
Rice. 2. Adolf Hitler.
The coming to power of the Nazis was not an ordinary change of cabinet. It marked the beginning of the systematic destruction of all institutions of the bourgeois-democratic parliamentary state, all the democratic gains of the German people, the creation of a "new order" - a terrorist anti-people regime.
At first, when open resistance to fascism was not finally suppressed (back in February 1933, anti-fascist demonstrations took place in many places in Germany),
Hitler resorted to "extraordinary measures", which were widely used in Weimar on the basis of emergency presidential powers. He never formally renounced the Weimar constitution. The first repressive decree "for the defense of the German people", signed by President Hindenburg, was adopted on the basis of Art. 48 of the Weimar Constitution and was motivated by the defense of "public peace".
In order to justify the emergency measures, Hitler in 1933 needed the provocative burning of the Reichstag, which was blamed on the German Communist Party. The provocation was followed by two new emergency decrees: "against treason against the German people and against treasonous actions" and "on the protection of the people and the state", adopted, as announced, with the aim of suppressing "communist violent actions harmful to the state." The government was given the right to take over the powers of any land, to issue decrees related to the violation of the secrecy of correspondence, telephone conversations, the inviolability of property, and the rights of trade unions.
From the first days of coming to power, Hitler began to implement his program, according to which Germany was to achieve a new greatness. Its implementation was supposed to be carried out in two stages. On the first one, the task was to rally the Germans into a kind of "national community", on the second - to turn it into a "combat community".
In order to unite the Germans into a single community, it was necessary to cleanse the Aryan race from "foreign blood", overcome class, confessional, ideological contradictions, which was achieved by eliminating political parties, except for the NSRPG, alien to ideology, public organizations, except for the Nazis, loyal to the "Fuhrer and Reich" , as well as through the "unification of the state apparatus", etc. Having done this "internal work", Germany, according to Hitler's plan, could begin to work "externally", the most important task of which was to conquer the living space, oust the peoples living there, mainly the peoples of Eastern Europe, through a merciless, bloody war. The fascist state and the NSRPG were mainly engaged in solving the tasks of the first stage until 1935. Since that time, total preparations for war began, and then the war itself.
The change of Hitler's "stages" was directly reflected in the legislation and changes in the mechanism of the fascist dictatorship. On March 24, 1933, the Reichstag adopts the Law "On the elimination of the plight of the people and the state", on the basis of which the government receives legislative rights, including on budgetary issues. It was also assumed that the norms of laws adopted by the government could directly deviate from the norms of the Constitution of 1919, which formally continued to operate (with one proviso that was abolished soon - "if they do not have the object of the Reichstag and the Reichsrat"). The law specifically emphasized that contracts with foreign states and their implementation does not need to be approved by Parliament. Formally, the law was adopted as a temporary law until April 1, 1937; in fact, it became the permanent fundamental law of the fascist state. From now on, the office of the National Socialist Party, subordinate to Hitler, took direct part in the preparation of all imperial laws. This was the end of the Weimar Republic with its representative institutions.
After the death of President Hindenburg on August 1, 1934, by a government decree, the office of president was abolished, and all power was concentrated in the hands of Hitler, the “leader” and the Reich Chancellor for life, who was given the right not only to appoint the imperial government, all the highest officials empire, but also his successor. From that time on, Hitler began the systematic destruction of all possible ways of opposition, which was a direct embodiment of the Nazis' program guidelines and the main requirement they introduced - fanatical, blind obedience to the will of the "Führer of the German people."
Following the prohibition of the Communist Party in March 1933, all trade unions were dissolved in May of the same year, and in June 1933 the Social Democratic Party was outlawed. Other parties that had been active before Hitler came to power "dissolved themselves." In July 1933, the existence of any political parties, except for the fascist and the organizations led by it, was prohibited by law. "In Germany," the law proclaimed, "there is only one party, the NSRPG, all others are prohibited." Attempts to "support the organizational structures of some other political party" were punishable by up to three years in prison.
By pursuing an "integration policy of the state and the party", the Nazis "unified" not only the parties, but also the press. Press organs, except for the Nazi ones, were either liquidated or included in the system of fascist propaganda. The law of March 24, 1933 “On the protection of the government of national revival from insidious encroachments” criminalized all persons who allowed “gross distortion of reality, expressed judgments that could cause severe damage to the well-being of the empire or individual German lands” in the form of imprisonment for up to two years , or the authority of the government of the empire or - individual lands and government parties. Penal servitude threatened those who, by their act, caused "heavy damage to the empire."
In December 1933, the Law "On Ensuring the Unity of the Party and the State" was issued, declaring the fascist party "the bearer of German state thought." In accordance with this law, the fascist Reichstag was also personally formed by Hitler (on the basis of lists “approved” by the plebiscite), and only persons from the Nazi party elite were appointed to the posts of ministers and other positions. Moreover, it was subsequently prescribed that any appointment to a public office made without the consent of the relevant body of the Fascist Party would be considered invalid.
The transformation of the Reichstag into a powerless, puppet institution, since its new composition was formed exclusively on a party basis, the liquidation of local governments were closely related to the general bureaucratization of the state apparatus. The state apparatus was purged from “inappropriate persons”, from all those who began working in the apparatus after 1918, from persons of “non-Aryan origin”, marriages of officials with “non-Aryan women”, etc. were prohibited.
Particular attention was paid to the indoctrination in the spirit of militarism, chauvinism and racism of young people, whose mentality was controlled by fascist youth organizations (Jungvolk, Hitler Youth, etc.). The leader of the Hitler Youth was officially called the "Leader of the Youth of the German Reich" and was personally responsible to Hitler as Fuhrer and as Reich Chancellor. After 1937, participation in the Nazi youth organizations became mandatory. These organizations were included in an extensive system of various Nazi organizations covering all aspects of the country's life.
The Nazis created a powerful terrorist apparatus, which began to take shape even before they came to power. In 1920, the first armed detachments arose - the "order service" of the fascists, which was assigned the role of protecting fascist gatherings. However, these detachments were most often used to create unrest at rallies of leftist forces, to attack workers' speakers, etc. In 1921, the "order service" was called "assault detachments" (SA). Declassed elements, soldiers and officers dismissed from the army, bankrupt shopkeepers, who were impressed by Nazi propaganda, were attracted to the SA detachments.
In March 1938, the independent state of Austria was annexed to Germany. Czechoslovakia became the next victim of fascist aggression. As a result of the Munich Agreement concluded in September 1938 by England, France and Nazi Germany, Czechoslovakia lost a significant part of its territory, annexed to the Reich. It was the defeat of an independent state without military action, followed in 1939 by the military occupation of the country. In September 1939 Poland was occupied by the Nazis. In July 1940, German troops occupied Paris, followed by new victories for the aggressor.
By the time of the attack on the USSR, Germany controlled the vast territories of Central and Eastern, most of Western and Northern Europe. In her hands was the coast of the Baltic Sea, a significant part of France. The powerful military and economic base of the occupied states was put at the service of Nazi Germany, the purpose of which was proclaimed "to protect civilization from the threat of Bolshevism", and in fact - the destruction of the USSR.
Against Soviet state Nazi Germany, together with its allies and satellites, fielded an army of 5 million (German, Italian, Romanian and other troops), armed with 3,500 tanks, 4,900 aircraft, etc.
During the Second World War, in which 61 states participated, more than 50 million people were killed, 11 million were destroyed in fascist concentration camps, and 95 million became disabled. The main burden of the war was borne by the Soviet Union, which for 4 years led the Great Patriotic War, which cost (according to unspecified data) 30 million lives of its citizens. The Soviet Union has a decisive role to play in defeating the fascist military machine, and with it one of the most reactionary and aggressive states in human history that aspire to world domination.
Fascism in other countries
The fascisization of the Japanese state system was developed with the beginning of the Second World War and during it.
In 1940, the Japanese ruling circles, but especially the generals, made Prince Konoe, the former ideologist of the totalitarian military-fascist regime, prime minister. The most important posts in the government were entrusted to representatives of heavy industry concerns.
Following this, the creation of the so-called new political structure begins. In carrying out this plan, the political parties (with the exception, of course, of the communist party) announced their own dissolution. Together they formed the "Association for the Aid to the Throne" - a state organization funded by the government and led by it.
Local association bodies were the so-called neighborhood communities, a medieval institution revived by reaction. Each such community united 10-12 families. Several communities formed an "association of a street", a village, etc.
The Throne Assistance Association ordered members of the community to monitor the behavior of their neighbors and report everything they saw. One community had to watch over the other.
Instead of the banned trade unions, “societies serving the fatherland through production” were created at factories and factories, where workers were driven by force. Here, in the same way, mutual surveillance and blind obedience were achieved.
The unification of the press, the strictest censorship, and chauvinistic propaganda became an indispensable element of the “new political structure”. There was no question of any "freedoms".
Economic life was controlled by special associations of industrialists and financiers, endowed with administrative powers. This was called the "new economic structure". The Japanese parliament, or rather what was left of it, lost all significance. Its members were appointed by the government or (which is the same thing) were elected from special lists drawn up by the government.
Thus, the main signs of fascism were revealed. But there were also some differences:
a) In Germany and Italy, the fascist parties controlled the army; in Japan, it was the army that played the role of the main hand of the Greatest political force;
b) as in Italy, so in Japan, fascism did not abolish the monarchy; the difference is that the Italian king did not play the slightest role, while the Japanese emperor did not at all lose his absolute power, nor his influence (all the institutions associated with the monarchy, such as the Privy Council, etc., were preserved).
Japanese fascism acted in a specific form of military-monarchist dictatorship.
It must be said here that the model of a strong regime, fascist or semi-fascist, was in great vogue in Europe between the two wars. And in Eastern Europe in particular. Before 1939, moreover, already before 1933 (the date Hitler came to power in Germany), many countries of this part of Europe were already under the rule of openly fascist, semi-fascist or authoritarian regimes, gradually evolving towards fascism. Europe was populated by dictators. The general reader knows that there was Mussolini in Italy, Salazar in Portugal, Franco in Spain, the racist regime of Marshal Paten in France, Hitler in Germany, but also, do not forget, Pilsudski - little Stalin in Poland, Voldemaras in Lithuania, Karlis Ulmanis in Latvia, Cornelius Cordeanu (and later Marshal Antonescu) in Romania, Marshal Mannerheim in Finland, Admiral Horthy (also regent) in Hungary, Ante Pavelić in Croatia, Monsignor Tiso in Slovakia ... In Bulgaria, Tsar Boris III himself became the fascist leader.
In December 1934, sixteen (!) European countries were represented at the International Congress of Fascist Parties, convened by Mussolini in Montreau. The Duce, the head of the first fascist state (1922), dreamed of a fascist international and immediately after coming to power began secretly rearming Germany, Bulgaria and the countries that had come into being as a result of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (unwisely and hastily cut out in living meat Europe by Lloyd George and Clemenceau). The Duce supplied weapons to Admiral Horthy's Hungary and Austria (the main recipient was the far-right Heimverehn organization, but not only it). Not limited to the export of weapons and fascism, the Duce also instructed on the spot. From 1926, Hungarian soldiers received military training directly in Italy.
In Romania in 1931 Cornelius Cordeanu created the Fascist Iron Guard.
In 1939, the Slovak fascist state was created, which participated on the side of Hitler in the war against Poland and two years later - against the USSR. In 1940, Hungary officially joined the Tripartite Pact (German-Italian-Japanese). Bulgaria, led by a dynasty of German origin, fought on the side of Germany already in the First World War. In 1919-1923. we see the dictatorship of Stamboliysky in Bulgaria. In 1935, Tsar Boris III himself establishes his dictatorship, as if it was not enough for him that he was a tsar. In 1941 Bulgaria signs an official pact with Germany. The fascist state of Croatia was created in the same year. In 1940, Marshal Antonescu became the dictator ("conductor") of Romania. In 1941, Romania is an ally of Germany ...
Even the positive characters of that era did not escape the influence of fascism. In 1934 the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss (killed by the pro-German Nazis a few months later) proclaimed the establishment of a one-party regime of the "fascist model" (!) and, resorting to violence, destroyed the socialist opposition in Vienna. The Yugoslav King Alexander (killed in 1934 by the Ustaše Ante Pavelic) today looks like a victim of fascism, but, however, he abolished the constitution of his country in 1929 and ruled alone.
And Czechoslovakia? She gave herself to Germany in 1938 and 1939. (just like later, in 1948 and 1968) without a single shot being fired. Despite the fact that in 1938 it had a well-armed modern army, the Wehrmacht was not yet a victorious Wehrmacht. It is impossible to condemn Czechoslovakia for this. For a state molded from pieces, a soldier does not really want to give his life. Three and a half million Sudeten Germans opened the gates to Hitler themselves. They greeted Hitler in exactly the same way as 97% of the inhabitants of Austria.
When in June 1941 the 5.5 millionth army of Hitler invaded the territory of the USSR, it included 900 thousand soldiers of the allied countries. Subsequently, their number increased. Duce Italians, Spanish division, French and Dutch units. Yes, but Eastern "innocent" Europe was much more widely represented than Western: Romanian, Hungarian, Finnish, Slovak divisions. Czech and Austrian Germans fought in the Wehrmacht. And if the Polish divisions were not part of Hitler's "Great Army", this is just an accident of history - a consequence of the immoderate appetite of the mustachioed nationalist and "socialist" Pilsudski. After all, the Poles gladly participated in Napoleon's campaign against Russia. Like Hitler, Napoleon came to Russia with soldiers from all over Europe.
Modern fascism
"Skinheads" were born in the mid-60s as a reaction of a certain part of the British working class to hippies and motorcycle rockers. Then they liked the traditional work clothes, which were difficult to tear in a fight: black felt jackets and jeans. They cut their hair short so as not to interfere in fights.
By 1972, the fashion for "skinheads" began to wane, but unexpectedly revived 4 years later. A new round of development of this movement was indicated by already shaved heads, army boots and Nazi symbols. English "skinheads" began to fight more often with the police, fans of football clubs, the same "skinheads", students, homosexuals, immigrants. In 1980, the National Front infiltrated their ranks, introducing neo-Nazi theory, ideology, anti-Semitism, racism, and so on into their movement. Crowds of "skinheads" with a tattooed swastika on their faces appeared on the streets, chanting " Zig, heil! »
In 1977, the "skinhead" style penetrated the United States and this organization, in fact, replaced the Ku Klux Klan. First came the Negro, Hispanic, Jewish skinheads, many of whom peacefully coexisted with each other. It was like national associations into certain communities.
This brotherhood cracked in 1986, when the group's record " Scrudriver » ( SCREWDRIVER) promoting white supremacy.
Today, the “skinhead brotherhood”, in its total mass, is represented by football, less often hockey, fans. Since the 70s, the uniform of the “skins” has remained unchanged: black and green jackets, nationalist T-shirts, jeans with suspenders (a kind of harness), an army belt with an iron buckle, heavy army boots (such as “GRINDERS” or “Dr.MARTENS” ).
In almost all countries of the world, "skins" prefer abandoned places. There "skinheads" meet, accept new sympathizers into the ranks of their organization, imbued with nationalist ideas, listen to music. The inscriptions, quite common in their habitats, also speak of the foundations of the teachings of the "skins":
Let's clear the land of colored pigs! World Wide White Power! Russia is for russians! Moscow is for Muscovites! Every nigga got a rope around his neck! Chocks - get out of Russia! Adolf Hitler. Mein Kampf. Let's make Russia more clear.
Skins have a clear hierarchy. There is a "lower" echelon and a "higher" - advanced "skins" with excellent education. "Unadvanced skins" are not much different from the yard punks, their backbone is made up of teenagers 16-19 years old. Even being "100% white", any of the passers-by can be beaten to a pulp by them. You don't need a reason to fight.
The situation is somewhat different with the "advanced skinheads", who are also called "rightists". First of all, this is not just unbridled youth who have nothing to do. This is a kind of "skinhead" elite - people are well-read, educated and adults. The average age of the "right skins" is from 22 to 30 years. In their circles, thoughts about the purity of the Russian nation are constantly exaggerated. In the thirties, Goebbels moved the same ideas from the rostrum, but only it was about the Aryans.
Recently, new trends have appeared among the students of Kant, Nietzsche, and Goebbels. In discussions about the purity of the nation, we are now talking about the entire white population of the earth, i.e. The skinheads movement is gaining global proportions.
European and world neo-fascist organizations.
Italy. After the end of the 2nd World War, the former Italian fascists did not want to put up with the democratic and socialist movement, they decided to start new story Italian fascism, capable of once again being in power.
In 1947, one of the major neo-fascist organizations appeared, which did not depend on the mafia, “Movimento Sociale Italiano” or “Party of the Italian Social Movement” (P.I.S.D.). At first it was an organization with no more than 1,000 members, after the amalgamation of several nationalist organizations and parties on the basis of the P.I.S.D. in 1973, became the most influential among the entire national movement in Italy. After the unification, they received another name - "National Right Forces" (N.P.S.), which became the all-Italian recognition of the party.
Until 1973, the Italian Social Movement Party became famous for its terrorist attacks and well-organized agitation. The main clashes took place between P.I.S.D. and communist movements in Italy, terrorist attacks were directed towards immigrants and Jews.
After 1973 N.P.S. tried to run for the Italian parliament, playing on the patriotic feelings of citizens, and scored about 5% of the vote. In the 80s, N.P.S. joined the international association of neo-fascists - the Malmo International.
N.P.S. in 1995 he again changes the name of his organization, and is now called "Allenza Nazionale". These manipulations with the name change are argued with the inconsistency of the parties with the ideas, but this is just a ploy to avoid a ban on the party in Italy.
Germany. The Second World War changed the minds of the Germans. This has become part of the most terrible past, which haunts them even now. But history tends to take a turn and again repeat the past, adjusted for the present.
19 years have passed since the end of the war of 1939-45. and already again in Germany there are followers of Hitler's ideas. In 1964, one of the first on the territory of the F.R.G. neo-fascist organizations, which was called the "National Democratic Party of Germany". Later, on the basis of the organization “Help for Arrested Nazis”, which was composed of former Nazis, 2 more large nationalist organizations appeared - the “German National Front” (“German Nationalistische Front”) and the “German Republican Party” (“German Republicaner Partei” (REP )).
All three of these organizations are semi-terrorist organizations.
The "Freiheitliche Deutche Arbeiterpartei" ("Free German Workers' Party") is the most dangerous Nazi group in Germany, leading a partisan image of resistance to the authorities. One of the largest parties in Germany and Europe. Well known for her processions through the streets of German cities and clashes with the police. He has a great influence in the Malmo International and among the world's neo-fascist organizations.
Sweden. Even in socialist Sweden, parties and organizations have appeared that are among the most dangerous and largest. The most famous and aggressive organization is the "White Aryan Resistance" ("Vitt Ariskt Montstand" (V.A.M.)), under the pressure of which an alliance of all significant neo-fascist, nationalist and racist in Europe appeared - the Malmö International.
V.A.M. consists of large and small units operating in different parts of Sweden, Scandinavia, Germany, Italy, Austria and other European countries.
Another well-known party in Europe - "Democratic Sweden" ("Sverige Democraterna" (SD)) is trying to come to power in Sweden legally, but now it is on the verge of prohibition and collapse.
Austria. A large and practically the only neo-fascist organization is the Volkstreue AusserParlamentarische Opposition (V.A.P.O.). It is an organization that has departed from the general “Skinhead” movement, retaining the symbols and signs of “skinheads” in its symbolism. The recent performances of this organization in some cities of Austria made it necessary to take very seriously the problem of neo-fascism, which is gaining momentum in the country. After several police raids, V.A.P.O. leaders were arrested and their weapons were seized. V.A.P.O. preparing for a violent takeover.
Hungary. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many nationalist movements appeared in Hungary. Up to a certain point, they were independent of each other and, moreover, of European organizations. With the beginning of the 90s, the situation began to change, and the Hungarian nationalists were under the threat of a ban on their organizations. Then they had to enter into an alliance with other nationalist and neo-fascist Europe, and joined the Malmo International.
The most famous organizations in Hungary are the "National Offensive" ("Nationalr Offensive") and the "Hungarian Prosperity Association" ("Magyar Nepjoleti Szovetseg").
USA."Ku Klux Klan" ("Ku-Klux-Klan") - a covert racist terrorist organization in the United States; It was created in 1865 to fight the Negro movement and progressive organizations.
The Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1865, just after the end of the war between the (capitalist) North and the slave-owning South. The KKK was first heard about in the city of Pulaski, which was in the South before the war. The movement itself originates and is located on the territory of the former slave-owning South, where the large slave owners who remained in the minority are trying to regain their former power. The members of the KKK were former officers of the army of the South, who were not happy with the situation, and continued this war on a local scale.
The name "Ku Klux Klan" comes from the fact that these 3 words resemble the sound of a cock raised.
Usually the Ku Klux Klans held their rites at night in the habitats of blacks. They wear white robes with hoods and slits for the eyes, which are reminiscent of the days of the Holy Inquisition and the frequency of the white race. It is now common for members of the KKK to have tattoos of the KKK cross or a burning Christian cross.
The rituals of "cleansing the white territory from the black stench" are accompanied by the burning of the Christian cross, as a sign of imminent reprisal or "God's punishment."
The KKK movement has experienced its ups and downs, which are inextricably linked with wars and crises. So the revival of a powerful movement falls on the end of the 1st World War (1918), the Great Depression - the largest crisis from 1929 to 1932, the end of the 2nd World War (1945-52), the global fuel crisis of the 70s .
Currently, the KKK is losing its former power and is giving way to other racist and nationalist movements such as SKINHEADS, the John Birch Society, and others.
SOUTH AFRICA. In a country unique in its ethnic composition, a racial movement could not but arise. Whites, having taken all the leading positions in South Africa, decided to completely drive the blacks out of the country, making it a white spot on the map of black Africa.
There are several racial movements active in South Africa, both white and black. The most famous is the Afrikaner Weerstands Beweging (AWB)
Russian National Unity (R.N.E.). The emergence of this organization in Russia in the 90s was due to some factors, the combination of which made it quite feasible.
After the collapse of the USSR, many organizations and associations of a nationalist and pro-fascist nature began to appear in Russia. The emergence of Russian National Unity was not accidental. Memories of the war in Afghanistan, endless conflicts in the North Caucasus, the “Memory” society, liberalism in freedom of thought and other factors influenced people who were informal and immediately ceased to perceive the past, Soviet ideology. A sharp reaction to moods in the interior of the country led A. Barkashov and his associates to create an organization, a military-patriotic youth union, more like a resurrected meeting of the SS division "Adolf Hitler". Having set himself the goal of creating such an organization, A. Barkashov knew that, under the new democratic laws, this would be just an innocent prank of the unemployed, petushniks and veterans of the war in Afghanistan.
By 1994 R.N.E. opened its unofficial offices in many major cities of Russia, taking part in local elections and taking seats in local parliaments and governments. Having adopted the ideas, form and symbolism (the symbol of R.N.E. is a stylized right-sided swastika), Alexander Petrovich Barkashov and his associates adopted the form of action and functioning of the party, making it a kind of SS troops and formations. So, for example, in the southern regions of Russia R.N.E. in fact, it has already replaced all previously existing youth organizations such as DOSAAF and VLKSM.
According to the leadership of R.N.E., 32 organizations are officially registered today. Peculiar "branches" exist in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Estonia.
There is a children's organization in Vladimir where boys from 6 to 16 years old are admitted and taught hand-to-hand combat. There is a youth organization in Samara that teaches skydiving, in Stavropol Territory R.N.E. completely replaced DOSAAF
The authorities themselves and law enforcement agencies are cooperating with the “Barkashovites” (patrolling the streets and trains in Voronezh and the Moscow region). According to some reports, the authorities of Kostroma allocated the premises of the city administration for holding a party conference; in Vladimir, two representatives of R.N.E. are members of the advisory council under the governor, in Tver the city committee on youth affairs partially finances the activities of the local branch.
People's National Party (N.N.P.). N.N.P. appeared as a result of the split of the unified national movement of Moscow and the Moscow region. Many members of the R.N.E., neo-fascists and skinheads formed the N.N.P. It has about 500 members (mainly Moscow) and publishes the newspaper "I am a Russian". The activity is not made public, therefore it has a small number of members and practically does not play a role in the national. movement of Russia.
OB 88. The largest association of "skinheads" in Russia. Appeared in 1994. It unites the skinheads of Moscow, the Moscow region, St. Petersburg, Samara, Vladimir, Petrozavodsk, Yekaterinburg, Tula, etc. The structure of OB 88 resembles the skinheads organization of the whole world. To maintain unity and non-conflict, members of OB 88 are prohibited from joining any football (hockey, etc.) fan groups. The fact of the collision of OB 88 with some fan groups, such as "RED-BLUE WARRIORS" and "BLUE-WHITE DYNOMITE" in Moscow, is known And " NEVSKY FRONT" in St. Petersburg. Also known are their actions directed against McDonald's restaurants, which they consider "bear the complete Americanization of the Russian people."
Russian National Party (R.N.P.) is the twin of the organization Russian National Unity after the ban of R.N.E. in Moscow. Operates mainly on the territory of Moscow. Organized in 1998.
CONCLUSION
Opening the topic “History of fascism”, we can draw the following conclusion: fascism is in power - a terrorist dictatorship has been opened, using extreme forms of violence, against those objectionable to the regime. Ideas are openly preached: racism, chauvinism, command methods of economic regulation. Foreign policy is aggressive, aimed at unleashing wars and seizing the territories of other states, exterminating peoples. In such a state, there is a cult of personality of the leader. Fascism has its origins "role models" in the distant past. We see elements of fascism in the history of the Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, during the time of Napoleon.
A big problem is racism. The foundations of which are the position on the physical and psychological inequality of human races and on the decisive influence of racial differences on the history of the culture of society, on the division of people into higher and lower races, of which the first are the only creators of civilization, called to dominate, and the second are doomed to exploitation. .
At present, fascism is in its classical form does not exist anywhere. However, bursts of fascist ideology can be seen in many countries. Fascist ideologies, with the support of the chauvinistic, lumpenized sections of the population, are actively fighting for mastery of the state apparatus, or at least for participation in its work.
Literature
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5. Blank A.S. From the history of early fascism. Organization. Ideology. Methods. -M.: Thought, 1978.
6. Blank A.S. Old and new fascism. -M.: Publishing house of political literature., 1982.
7. Bogarov L., Chernyshov I. Servants of the devil. Anti-Christian essence of the Third Reich//Landmark. - 1995. - No. 5.
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9. Vorobyevsky A. Mysticism of fascism//Russia. - 1995. - No. 9,11,14.
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The economic policy of German fascism
Introduction
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Fascism in Germany and other countries appeared as a petty-bourgeois political movement. As a rule, poor and poorly educated people adjoined this political movement, who lost their stable position in society due to economic development. The assault detachments of the fascist party consisted mainly of representatives of the petty bourgeoisie. The basic slogans of the party were also addressed to the petty-bourgeois part of society. Thus, in particular, the liquidation of capitalist monopolies, support for artisans and small traders, who were threatened with ruin, and the provision of cheap loans for business development were promised.
The petty bourgeoisie was the stratum of society most affected by the consequences of the First World War. The greatest damage was caused by reparations (compensation for damage caused by military operations to the victorious countries) and inflation. The mass ruin of this part of the German population activated it and allowed the fascist party to attract a large number of supporters. In addition, Hitler's slogans had a great influence on the workers, since the party was called the National Socialist Workers' Party and positioned itself as a force defending the interests of the workers. One of the leading slogans addressed to the workers was the slogan of giving work to all those who lost it after the First World War.
However, Hitler's coming to power was marked by a sharp change in the course of the party, a reorientation from the interests of the petty bourgeoisie to the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie. Fascism has become a special form of state-monopoly capitalism, government controlled farming taken to the extreme.
The German economy was completely subordinated to the state administration, in which the leaders of the monopoly bourgeoisie occupied the main place, the General Council of the Economy was created, the final word in which belonged to the monopolist in the field of military production Krupp, as well as the monopolist in the production of electrical equipment Siemens. The main branches of the economy were headed by special economic groups, which were subordinated to industry, trade and finance, as well as leading industry groups (chemical, aviation, etc.). The entire economy of Germany was entirely subordinated to the military idea, since the main political idea of the fascist party was a new attempt to conquer world domination.
1. The economic crisis of 1929-1933
In 1923-1928. The German economy was booming. Its share in world industrial production increased from 8 to 12%. There was a growing conviction in society that the problems that had arisen after the First World War were over.
Crash of 1929 on stock exchange New York dealt a devastating blow to the German economy, as the economic growth of the previous five years was based on attracting foreign loans and the development of export-oriented industries. Due to the global crisis, the flow of funds from new loans ceased, the volume of exports decreased (by 60%), and resources for importing food and raw materials were exhausted. As a result, the volume of production from 1929 to 1933 decreased by almost 50%, the unemployment rate reached 6 million people.
The crisis in Germany brought to power an extreme product of reaction - fascism (January 1933). The economic outlook of this political movement in Germany was based on the ideas of the national economy of Friedrich List.
These ideas can be summarized in three main points. The first is the theory of productive forces. Friedrich List believed that the growth of social wealth is achieved not through scattered, but through the coordinated activities of people who must preserve and multiply what was produced by the efforts of previous generations. True wealth lies in the development of the productive forces, and not in the quantity of exchangeable values.
According to List, the task of politics is to unite people, to ensure the economic education of the nation. This will ensure the rise of productive forces. The increase in productive forces begins with an individual factory and then spreads to the national association.
The concept of the nation's economic progress is based on the principle of successively changing stages of production. The stages proposed by List are rather conditional:
wild state,
pastoral life,
agricultural state,
agricultural and handicraft state.
As a result, the nations pass into the final stage, in which agriculture, industry and trade develop harmoniously.
The meaning of the "theory of stages" is, in particular, that each stage must correspond to its inherent economic policy, aimed at raising production, developing the productive forces of the nation. This thesis is directed against the universal recipes of the classics: their preaching of free trade met the interests of England, but contradicted the needs of Germany, which was economically weak and politically fragmented at that time.
List believed that it is impossible to understand the national economy as an organic whole if the state economy is excluded from it. A people's economy becomes a national economy if the state encompasses an entire nation that has independence, the ability to acquire stability and political significance. State power coordinates and directs the efforts of individual links of the national economy in the name of the long-term, fundamental interests of the nation.
In the theories of his followers Feder, Brinkman and others, a significant strengthening of the functions of the corporate state was proposed. Such a state, according to the authors, realizes a national goal without social contradictions of the intra-economic system by eliminating non-Aryan races from the economic life and a sharp strengthening of the economic functions of the corporate state.
The corporate state and its corresponding corporate economy presuppose the centralization of management based on corporate ownership of the means of production. Such an economy maximizes social income through autarky (economic self-sufficiency), the forced association of workers and entrepreneurs in corporations on a professional basis under the control of the state. Income in this case is distributed by the state through corporations in proportion to capital and labor.
The ideas of the corporate economy, like those of fascism, were not purely German. The first fascist regime was established in Italy in the 1920s, and the ideas of the corporate economy as an alternative to liberal capitalism were an integral part of the social doctrine of the Catholic Church (encyclical Rerum novarum - 1891). Rerum Novarum is an open letter addressed to all the bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, drawing their attention to the condition of the working class. Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler and Cardinal Henry Edward Manning had a significant influence on the content of this epistle. The encyclical dealt with the relationship between government, business, workers and the Church. The Pope spoke out in support of the right of workers to form trade unions, while rejecting socialist ideology and reaffirming the right to private property.
A feature of the German corporate model was the hypertrophy of the principle of autarchy in the economy. The works of the German economist W. Sombart played their role here. enrichment at the expense of others. Germany in such constructions is assigned the role of an industrial power with neighboring raw materials and food zones integrated into its economy under the protection of protectionist barriers.
The concept of the corporate economy served as a theoretical justification for the militarization of the economy with an increase in the military budget, intensified exploitation of the working people and the political expansion of German imperialism, which sought to redistribute the world. New factories for the production of tanks, combat aircraft, guns, etc. were built. The production of submarines and ammunition expanded. Stocks of raw materials and food, cash funds of various kinds passed into the hands of the military.
The fascists stimulated the growth of monopoly capitalism into state-monopoly capitalism. They united all industrial and financial companies, transport, trade, handicraft enterprises into sectoral and territorial groups, putting leaders from among the big capitalists at the head. The industrialists Krupp, Thyssen, Fegler, and the banker Schroeder became members of the General Council of the Economy under the Ministry of the National Economy.
The organizational principles of the new economic system were laid down by the law “On preparations for the organic construction of the German economy” of February 27, 1934. Under this law, the Minister of Economics received the authority to create economic associations. 7 main imperial groups were formed:
industry,
energy,
trade,
banking,
insurance business,
transport .
through which government decisions in the field of economics. The main emphasis in the management of the economy was invariably placed on methods of direct, administrative diktat. This is a distinctive feature of state-monopoly capitalism in Hitler's Germany.
Further militarization of the economy is carried out according to the four-year plan adopted in 1936 for mobilizing Germany's resources, accumulating scarce materials and expanding the production of military equipment. Tasks were set: in four years, Germany should have a combat-ready army, and the country's economy should be ready for war.
The branches of heavy and military industry were predominantly developed. 3/5 of all investments were directed here. As a result, heavy industry, which reached its pre-crisis level already in 1934, by 1939 exceeded it by 50%. The leading place in German industry was occupied by mechanical engineering, which provided 25% of all industrial output. From 1932 to 1938 military spending increased 25 times. Their share rose from 26% to 76%.
State control over the labor market was established by the Law “On the Organization of National Labor” adopted in 1934. He declared the end of the class struggle, and the workers turned into soldiers of labor. Each entrepreneur was declared their Fuhrer and received all the rights to develop internal regulations that are mandatory for all employees. All collective tariff agreements ceased to exist, and the wage rates and working hours established in them were annulled. All these values were determined by the entrepreneur, who played a leading role in the enterprises created " social courts honor." They made a decision on the immediate dismissal of the employee, a fine or a warning.
With the approach of war, the institutions of the corporate economy are increasingly being replaced by administrative dictates, the right to make economic decisions is transferred from corporations to the central government. Uniform wage standards were defined for the whole country.
The problem of employment in the country was achieved through the forced involvement of the unemployed in public works. Skilled workers were forbidden to change jobs. The working day was extended to 10-14 hours.
fascism political germany reparation
2. Characteristics of the economic policy of Nazi Germany
preparation of a military resource base;
the accelerated development of the military industry;
the implementation after the elimination of unemployment of measures to provide the military industry with labor force;
preparation of food base;
improving the regulatory and militarization of the country.
In 1940, the third four-year plan was adopted, according to which the main economic task was the development of military production and military-industrial potential.
Special measures were taken for the purchase of ores and non-ferrous metals abroad, and the development of our own iron ore deposits was expanded. The production of aluminum and coal mining were stimulated. The production of synthetic petroleum products has increased sharply. For this purpose, significant loans were granted to chemical companies.
The branches of heavy and military industry were predominantly developed. 3/4 of all investments were directed here. Enterprises listed as "militarily important" were primarily supplied with loans, labor, and raw materials.
As a result, by 1939 heavy industry exceeded the level of 1934 by 50%. War production from 1932 to 1938 increased 10 times. By the same amount increased military spending; in 1938-1939 they accounted for 58% of the state budget. In May 1939, the head of the military and economic department, General Thomas, reported: “History knows only a few examples when a country, even in peacetime, directs all its economic resources to meet the needs of the war so purposefully and systematically.
In general, the militarization of the economy contributed to the country's recovery from the crisis and a significant increase in production volumes.
In order to militarize the economy, foreign capital was widely used. German debts abroad in September 1940 amounted to 14.8 billion marks. Fascist Germany was generously funded by American monopolies. US corporations handed over to the Germans the technical secrets of rubber production, radio installations, equipment for diesel engines, etc. The fascists created a complex apparatus for managing the economy.
In June 1933, the General Council of Economy was organized under the Ministry of Economics, designed to develop and direct the economic policy of the state. The General Council played a leading role in guiding the economy. It was here that plans for the economic development of the country were discussed. The economic groups that headed industry, trade, finance were subordinate to the General Council, and, in turn, the industry groups - chemical, aviation and other industries. The Council consisted of 16 members, nine of which represented big business, four - big banks and two - large farmers.
The fascist regime established strict control over foreign exchange settlements and foreign trade. The methods of tax regulation, the issuance of subsidies and loans were widely used. But the main emphasis was placed on methods of direct, administrative dictatorship. Distinctive feature state regulation became the so-called "Fuhrer-principle", enshrined in the law of 1934 on the "organic construction of the German economy." According to this law, all business associations became subordinate to the Ministry of Economics and were headed by the Fuhrer of the German economy. F. Kessler, the head of the electrical industrialists, was appointed to them. The entire economy was divided into groups, uniting individual industries and areas. In essence, this law transferred the leadership of the economy to big capital.
The German fascists stimulated the concentration of production. In 1933, the Compulsory Syndication Act was passed, requiring businesses to be part of existing cartels and syndicates. First of all, it was carried out in the metallurgical industry. As a result of forced syndication, 6 banks and 70 largest companies seized control of 2/3 of the country's industrial potential. At the same time, the Nazis always gave preference to military companies.
During the period of fascist rule, the public sector of the economy significantly expanded due to the confiscated property of persons of non-Aryan origin, persons repressed for various reasons, the seizure of property of democratic organizations (5 billion marks were confiscated in the Workers' Bank alone), as well as enterprises in the occupied by Germany during the Second World War. territory wars.
The widespread use of violent methods in economic life, the implementation of rearmament and military-economic mobilization led to a sharp growth of the fascist state apparatus. The total number of officials and employees increased in 1939 compared to 1933 by 869.5 thousand people.
One of the main products of the Nazi version of the state regulation of capitalism, labor service, also had a militaristic character. It was first established for students in May 1933 and extended to the rest of the youth by the laws on voluntary (1934) and compulsory labor service (1935). All young people under 25 were obliged to serve it in specialized military camps. On June 22, 1938, general forced labor service was introduced. By this law, the imperial administration for the supply of labor was granted the right to send to any work every inhabitant of any profession or age.
The fascist regime almost completely destroyed the system social protection And social insurance. In 1934, metalworkers were forbidden to change jobs. Later, these restrictions were extended to other categories of skilled workers. The length of the working day was increased to 10-14 hours. Organizations of the working class, primarily trade unions, were liquidated. their property and cash were confiscated by the fascist government. All workers forcibly united in the "German labor front", which included entrepreneurs. Following the trade unions, the Nazis abolished sickness funds, sports and tourism unions, educational and other societies. Thus, the "class struggle" was eliminated, the workers united in one organization with representatives of capital.
The agrarian policy of fascism was designed to create food reserves, which was associated with preparations for war. To this end, the "Imperial estate for food" was created, which united agricultural workers, peasants, junkers, merchants of agricultural goods, owners of the food industry. It was a cumbersome bureaucratic machine. It consisted of 10 central and 4 economic departments, 20 unions. Each division was led by a Führer of greater or lesser rank.
A system of forced deliveries of agricultural products was introduced, and the trade union of agricultural workers was liquidated. In September 1933, the law "On hereditary yards" was adopted, declaring peasant farms from 7.5 to 125 hectares of land inalienable. They were exempt from land tax, inheritance tax. According to this law, the medieval principle of majorat was introduced - the inheritance of land from the father to the eldest of the sons. The younger sons were supposed to serve the state and win their own "living space".
Thus, the economic policy of fascism is a totalitarian model of regulated capitalism, focused on preparing for a new world war.
3. Ideologists of the economic policy of German fascism
Having become Reich Chancellor in 1933, Hitler on March 17 returned to the post of President of the Reichsbank Hjalmar Schacht, at that time the chief representative of the American financial corporation, J. P. Morgan. Simultaneously, Schacht's predecessor at the Reichsbank (1930-33) and former Chancellor (1925-26) Hans Luther (representing Germany in 1924 when discussing the Dawes plan) was sent as ambassador to the United States.
The former party affiliation of both (Shakht was once a member of the NDP, Luther was a member of the NDP) was of no decisive importance either for the country's economic course or for the organization of foreign cash flows to provide the German economy with financial resources. From the consequences of the global economic crisis, both Luther and, at first, Schacht defended the German economy by methods that were later called Keynesian. M. Kalecki and others referred to this variety as "militaristic Keynesianism".
The state went to the large-scale costs of public buildings, which were covered by deficit financing from the budget. So, for example, hundreds of kilometers of the famous German autobahns were built. The first Cologne-Bonn autobahn, built by the forces of the former unemployed, was opened even before Hitler, on August 6, 1932. But after 1933, when F. Todt headed the road construction, his organization increased the length of autobahns from 108 km in 1935 to 3736 km in 1940. Unemployment, which reached 30% in early 1933, began to fall sharply.
The implementation of this policy would have been impossible without strict control over the two components of inflation - the rise in prices at the initiative of the capitalists and the rise in wages at the request of the trade unions. The Nazis banned unions and strikes while enforcing strict price controls. In June 1933, the Reinhardt Program was launched, named after Fritz Reinhardt, Secretary of State for the Treasury. It was a massive infrastructure project where indirect incentives (tax cuts) were used to encourage direct investment in public value projects—not just autobahns, but railroads and waterways. Its side result was an increase in the population's demand for cars.
All these measures helped to avoid inflation. Economists see the prerequisites for this, in part, in the introduction of fiduciary (fiat) means of circulation. They were issued by the Treasury without the necessary gold backing from the reserves of the Reichsbank.
Soon J. Shakht was given even more powers, and in August 1934 he headed the Ministry of Economics. Reinhardt's program was followed by a number of other similar initiatives. From 666,000 in 1933, the number of construction workers increased by 1936 to 2 million. In 1936, the share of military spending in Germany's GNP was 10% - higher than in any other country in Europe. But this figure continued to grow and subsequently. Part of the military spending was strategic government purchases of food and manufactured goods.
The year 1936 turned out to be critical for the German economy: prices for raw materials (the main volume of imports) began to rise, and for finished products (the main volume of exports) fell. A trade deficit seemed inevitable. However, here Hitler set a course for the self-sufficiency of the national economy. Among the trading partners, a group of states was singled out, on which Germany made a political bet. In addition to Italy, these were: Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Greece, Yugoslavia. Trade with them was encouraged (by 1938, more than half of their exports went to Germany), while curtailing with those who were not included in the preferential list - with the exception of England and the USA, the volume and composition of trade with which the Ministry of Economics regulated, focusing on the previously established a system of communications dominated by the interests of the largest I.G. Farben and other German corporations. A differentiated foreign trade policy helped Germany to strengthen its political influence in southern Europe and the Balkans.
In a special area of attention, Schacht singled out the turnover with the United States - a country whose economic interests were oriented by the Americans Dawes, and then Jung, the system of paying reparations, and whose interests as ambassador were carefully protected in 1933-38 by Hans Luther, Schacht's predecessor in the Reichsbank and Hitler as Chancellor of the Reich. Stock subsidiary IG Farbenindustry was listed in the USA throughout the war, and the Americans received income from them. Schacht developed a mechanism for "fine-tuning" the balance of payments with the United States, appointing a number of authorized banks for settlements with them - in particular, J. P. Morgan. These banks maintained private and corporate accounts in dollars of Germans and German companies. At the same time, American firms exporting to Germany were issued papers representing permission for the counter-purchase of goods in Germany for a specified amount. From the same amounts, travelers' checks were issued to Americans traveling in Nazi Germany.
Organizationally, not only Germany's foreign trade, but also domestic turnover were tied mainly to cartels, monopolies and oligopolies, whose interests the state protected.
Here, the structure inherited from the time of the military procurement committee of the First World War, which the German militarists recreated under the name "Imperial Union of German Industry" as early as 1919, earned a new force. On June 19, 1933, it was merged, together with the Federation of Employers' Associations, into a single Imperial Directorate of German Industry, dominated by the largest representatives of the military-industrial complex (MIC) of Germany.
Unlike the communists, Hitler did not fight against private property interests, but encouraged them. However, it was not the middle class that began to benefit from this, ”on whose votes Hitler came to power, but the largest capitalists, to whom a number of high-ranking generals were soon added. The corresponding triangle of economic power (party bosses - big business - generals), according to Schweitzer, had already formed by 1938. The ideas of socialism for the middle class, the author believes, were discarded, collective agreements and trade unions were banned. The interests of the monopolies, which received preferential support from the state in comparison with small entrepreneurs, and which made super profits, increasingly merged with the interests of the fascist government. It is noted that the ideas of nationalization at that time in Germany were less popular than in the West.
With the beginning of the seizure of adjacent territories and the transition to direct hostilities, Germany immediately included the resources of the occupied countries in its economic turnover. At the same time, for their own survival, these territories were often left below the subsistence level. Even before the war, labor camps were created in the system of forced labor, where “undesirable elements” were sent: homosexuals, vagrants, etc. Forced labor was also practiced in the penitentiary system, where under the Nazis, in addition to criminals, they became en masse do communists, Jews and some dissidents.
By 1944, between 1/5 and 1/4 of the entire labor force in Germany were foreigners, including civilians and prisoners of war. Hundreds of thousands of Jews, Slavs and representatives of other nations constituted a resource of practically free, slave labor at the factories of Thyssen, Krupp, IG Farben; Fordwerke, a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company, was no exception. In fact, there was not a single more or less large industrial or agricultural enterprise where the slave labor of prisoners of war or internees would not be used. If Operation Sea Lion was successful, this contingent was to be replenished by British citizens.
The annexed, occupied territories, as well as countries where the Nazis planted puppet regimes, sold raw materials and agricultural products to Germany at minimal prices. In this regard, the goal of the struggle for living space in the East, put forward by Hitler back in Mein Kampf, gave the German economy tangible results, even despite the partisan movement in the USSR. In the west of Europe, the reduction in the needs of the economies of subject countries was also used in favor of Germany; thus, about 2/3 of the wagon fleet of France in the territory occupied by the Germans was used to transport goods to Germany.
Thus, in the first years of active hostilities, the population of Germany did not feel this in their standard of living. Unlike most countries, Germany practically did not increase the level of taxes, and if in 1941 in Great Britain the income tax reached 23.7%, then in Germany it was only 13.7%. However, after 1942, the share of military spending began to grow, and as the losses of previously occupied territories in the USSR, Germany was forced to restructure its production facilities. Civil production was curtailed; where possible, the production of goods for the army was organized, and military administration was introduced at these enterprises.
Conclusion
Summarizing the data presented in this paper, we can draw the following conclusions:
The crash of 1929 on the New York Stock Exchange dealt a devastating blow to the German economy, as the economic growth of the previous five years had been based on attracting foreign loans and developing export-oriented industries. The crisis in Germany brought to power an extreme product of reaction - fascism (January 1933). The economic outlook of this political movement in Germany was based on the ideas of the national economy of Friedrich List. The construction of the German corporate model began.
A feature of the German corporate model was the hypertrophy of the principle of autarchy in the economy. The works of the German economist W. Sombart played their role here. enrichment at the expense of others.
The main core of the economic policy of fascism was the general militarization of Germany. It was carried out at an accelerated pace and was considered by the fascist government as the main means of overcoming the crisis.
The restructuring of the German economy was carried out in five directions: the preparation of a military raw material base, the accelerated development of the military industry, the implementation of measures to provide the military industry with labor force after the elimination of unemployment, the preparation of a food base, and the improvement of the regulatory and militarization of the country.
The branches of heavy and military industry were predominantly developed. 3/4 of all investments were directed here. Enterprises listed as "militarily important" were primarily supplied with loans, labor, and raw materials.
However, military production developed at the expense of non-military industries. The production of consumer goods by 1939 had not even reached the level of 1928.
In general, the militarization of the economy contributed to the country's recovery from the crisis and a significant increase in production volumes. The agrarian policy of fascism was designed to create food reserves, which was associated with preparations for war.
Bibliography
1. Bogaturova A.D. Systemic history of international relations. - M.: Academic project, 2000
2. Voshchanova V.P., Godzina G.S. History of Economics: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2001
3. Zhelezova V.F., Kolesov V.P. Economy foreign countries. capitalist and developing countries: Textbook for economic universities. - M.: Higher school, 1990
4. Zhilin P.A. How fascist Germany was preparing an attack on the Soviet Union. - M.: Nauka, 1965.
5. Konotopov M.V., Smetanin S.I. History of the economy. - M.: Academic project, 2001
6. Polyansky F.Ya., Zhamin V.A. Economic history capitalist countries: Textbook for universities. - M.: MGU, 1986
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Scientists point out that corporatism - one of the three key components of fascism, along with nationalism and totalitarianism - played the role of the most important constructive support in the economic policy of the fascist governments of Germany, Italy, Romania, Spain and other states. As a representative institutional structure, corporatism helped remove the usual conflicts of interest between social groups, propagating as an example the semi-fabulous "age of mutual assistance and mutual assistance" from the primitive past.
D. Baker and a number of other scientistsshowed that the economy (Baker also talks about political economy) fascism - a special type of economic system that has significant differences from economic systems developing within the framework of other ideologies. However, S. Payne (Payne, Stanley G.) and several other analysts, finding similarities between the fascist and other forms of regulated capitalist economy, find no reason to single out the fascist as a separate group. Soviet social science in defining fascism also emphasized the commonality between fascist and other varietiesstate-monopoly capitalist economythat “fascism in power is a terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary forces of monopoly capital ...”, which is among the most important distinguishing features, including “wide use of state-monopoly methods of regulating the economy ...”, moreover, “the mass base of fascism is mainly the middle strata of capitalist society ".
Essential features of the economies of fascist states
The concept of "state-monopoly capitalism" (SMC) describes approximately the same phenomena as " dirigisme » - the policy of active intervention in the management of the economy by the state. Tibor Behrend, the author of The Economic History of Europe in the 20th Century (Cambridge, 2005), noted precisely these features in the economy of Nazi Germany: the government exerts a strong governing influence, effectively controlling the production and distribution of resources. At the same time, in general, with the exception of a few cases of nationalization, the economy of the fascist states developed on the basis of private property and private entrepreneurial initiative, but all this was subordinated to the tasks of the state.In terms of relations between workers and entrepreneurs, fascism was guided by the principlessocial darwinism: to help the strongest, uprooting the weakest. In economic practice, this meant, on the one hand, the protection of the interests of successful entrepreneurs, and on the other, the destruction trade unions and other organizations working class ; "the use of extreme forms of violence to suppress the working class and all working people." As he wrote in 1936 G. Salvemini , speaking of the responsibility of taxpayers for private capitalist enterprises, the state thereby covers for the miscalculations of the capitalists: “profit is a private and individual matter; loss is a public and social matter. Fascist governments approved of the pursuit of private enterprise profits and gave significant indulgences to large corporations, demanding in return that all of their economic activity served the public interest.
An essential element in the economic doctrine of the fascist parties was the belief that the economic suffering of the exploited classes would be a thing of the past once the nation had completed its cultural and spiritual rebirth; official anthem NSDAP « Horst Wessel "promised:" slavery did not have long to live "( German Die Knechtschaft dauert nur mehr kurze Zeit). However, since the issues of the destruction of exploitation have long been raised in Germany, including by the German Social Democrats, there was no unity of views on this issue at the level of ordinary members of the NSDAP, and often their opinions about the economic policy that they would support were diametrically opposed. .
When they came to power, the fascists adapted their economic doctrine to the political situation. In the history of regimes that existed for a long time (for example, in Italy under Mussolini ), there are regular, sometimes significant revisions of the economic course. According to S. Payne On the one hand, the Nazis defended private property as “innate in the concept of freedom and immediacy of the individual personality,” and on the other hand, to one degree or another, they limited the development of full-scale capitalism in all respects.
In 1919, at a rally onsquare of San Sepolcro in Milan Benito Mussolini stated:
We want to be aristocrats and democrats, conservatives and liberals, reactionaries and revolutionaries, legalists and anti-legalists, depending on the circumstances of time, place and situation.
Subsequently, the ideologists of fascism also opposedproletarian internationalism, and against liberal capitalism , stating that their views represent a certain third way (Italian) terza via), a real alternative to free competition capitalism at the same time ( laissez-faire ), and a planned socialist economy (in their terminology - communism ). The fascists advocated corporatism and class cooperation, believing - unlike the socialists - that the existence of inequality and the division of society into classes are a blessing. " Italian Encyclopedia» in 1932 wrote in the article “The Doctrine of Fascism”: “ Fascism perpetuates the inevitable, productive and beneficial inequality of people". Unlike supporters liberalism , the Nazis welcomed the participation of the state in the settlement of interclass contradictions.
The foreign economic policy of the fascist states proceeded from the need to achieve independence from foreign markets and foreign capital. Ensuring strict control over imports, the movement of finance between the country and abroad, in a number of cases the state resorted to a direct ban on certain foreign trade operations. However, to autarky this economic system did not strive, since this term implies complete isolation of reproductive processes, excluding not only imports, but also exports, while Italy did not refuse exports as a source of currency.
One of the most important essential characteristics of the economy of the fascist states was the extremely high degree of militarization - specific gravitymilitary items in the budget And total productgoing to military needs.
Political and economic doctrines of fascist Italy
Main article: Economy of Italy under Fascism, 1922-1943Own "Union of revolutionary action" ("Fasci d" azione rivoluzionaria ") Mussolini created in 1915 , having almost 15 years of political experience behind him, accumulated in the ranks of the Italian socialists. Editor of the publications "Class struggle" from 1910 and " Avanti! » since 1912 Mussolini, on the one hand, knew and analyzed the mood in society, and on the other hand, as a journalist and politician, he formed them. The most numerous and active in Italy were unions carried out one after the other workers' rights strikes . In general activity working class Italy was high, and as a result of the elections, the Italian socialists were gaining popularity.
All this led to a counter-increase in the concern of big business and middle class , whose fears of a coming revolution intensified after the victoryOctober Revolution in Russiaand the subsequent revolutions in 1918 in Germany, and in 1919 - in Hungary, Bavaria etc. Meanwhile in March 1919 Mussolini reorganized his supporters into the Italian Struggle Groups, ( ital. Fasci italiani di combattimento) (V In 1921 they joined National Fascist Party). Having outlined in the program the demands against the monarchy, the Senate and the financial oligarchy, Mussolini attracted the sympathy of the petty bourgeoisie. During 1919-1921, his party finally became in opposition to the social democratic labor movement, joining in punitive actions against workers' organizations. A symbolic demonstration was the arson by the Nazis of the editorial office of Avanti!, which until recently was headed by Mussolini himself.
Ever since 1919 Mussolini, as a member of the Senate, establishes contacts with representatives of influential economic and political circles. Seeing that the traditional right-wing parties were unable to cope with the situation, they prompted the kingVictor Emmanuel IIIchoice in the person of Mussolini, as a person capable of holding a firm line and ensuring order. And when the king is in 1922 making this choice, his appointed prime minister, Benito Mussolini, assured his recommenders: the new (fascist) "government will ensure complete freedom for private enterprise and refuse to interfere in the private sector."
Indeed, during the first four years (1922-1925), under the Minister of FinanceAlberto de Stefanicourse corresponded to the principles of non-intervention of the state in the economy ( laissez-faire ). Free competition was encouraged; de Stefani cut taxes, loosened legislative controls and trade restrictions, cut public spending and balanced the budget. Wereprivatizedsome state monopolies (for example, telephone networks). The operation of some of the earlier laws introduced by the socialists (for example, oninheritance tax) has been suspended. Prosperity increased during this period, and by the mid-1920s, production had surpassed pre-war levels. True, all this was accompanied by inflation. During this period, the economic policy of the fascist party basically followed the course ofclassical liberalism, with the addition of elements of greater stimulation of domestic production compared to foreign trade, as well as balancing the budget. In his speech delivered in May 1924 , Mussolini also declared support for the rights of workers to strike.
As Mussolini "strengthened the vertical of power", the ideas of liberalism were supplanted by precedents of state intervention in the economy, "free trade - by protectionism, and the goals of economic growth were formulated in the language of exhortations and military command terminology." Under pressure from the "captains of the Italian industry", who demanded for domestic manufacturersprotection from foreign competitionand subsidies in the domestic market, de Stefani resigned in 1925. In 1926, Mussolini gave an impassioned speech, demanding that the financiers stop inflation and stabilize the exchange rate. lyre . He also introduced an official ban on any strike action. Under the next ministers of finance, in 1927-1929, Italy pursued a deflationary policy.
In the years world economic crisis of 1929–33Italy has suffered in the same way as other countries withmarket economy. Unemployment rose from 300,787 in 1929 to 1,018,953 in 1933. In an attempt to stop the crisis, the government nationalized large banks, which had securities of large industrial enterprises in their resources. There were also issued new securities in order to provide credit resources to banks and start providing financial assistance cartels (in Italy they were called consortiums, ital. consorzi), which were created in the country by the "captains of industry" after 1922. These organizations were promised support by the government in exchange for an obligation to pursue a price policy in accordance with the prices that the state was supposed to dictate. Not in Germany, but precisely in Italy, by the forces of the former unemployed, attracted to work on state orders, already in 1924 built the world's first motorway ( German autobahn) Milan- Varese.
In Italy, a number of enterprises of mixed ownership were created, which were called ital. istituti or enti nationali("institutions" or "national enterprises"), the purpose of which was the joint management of large enterprises. In these institutions, representatives of the state and the private sector jointly found compromise solutions to determine the economic course of these enterprises, their price and wage policies. According to the government, this task was successfully solved, as the country managed to survive the crisis without encroaching on private property. IN 1934 The Minister of Agriculture of Italy said: "While everywhere in the world private property bears the heavy burden of the crisis and suffers from its blows, in Italy, thanks to the actions of the fascist government, private property is not only preserved, but even strengthened."
The joint activity of the state and large industrialists in the management of private enterprises soon went beyond the boundaries of the economy into the sphere of politics, and thus the well-known model was born.state-monopoly regulationeconomy known as corporatism . At the end of the world crisis, after 1934 in Italy (as well as in other countries - see. O. Spann ) began to spread theories of universalism, an integral part of which was the idea autarky as at least a temporary way to avoid the negative impact of the world market on the national economy. It seemed to many that if it were not for dependence on foreign markets, the global crisis could have been avoided. From that time on, tariff and non-tariff barriers began to be introduced in Italy's foreign trade., and in 1935 Mussolini solemnly announced that already three-quarters of the country's industrial production does not depend on the external market, but only on the government.
The state began to provide significant financial support to the largest enterprises and banks. One of the first to receive such assistance in the amount of 400 million liras was a metallurgical trust. Gio. Ansaldo & C. . During the crisis deflation (after 1926 ) state support received such banks as Banco di Roma, Banco di Napoli and Banco di Sicilia . To save large unprofitable companies in 1933, Mussolini created the IRI -Institute for Industrial Reconstruction . By 1939 through the system public corporationsIRI controlled 20% of Italian industrial production (including 75% of smelting cast iron and 90% in shipbuilding ), two-thirds of telephone communications, a quarter of electric motors and about 1/6 of other equipment.
Mussolini's government adopted the Keynesian model of expanding budget spending on public needs in order to stimulate the effective demand of the population. Between 1929 and 1934, these expenditures tripled. In terms of their magnitude, these expenditures have become the largest item in the budget, exceeding even military spending.
The belief in the correctness of the course towards self-sufficiency as the basis of the country's economic security became stronger after 1935 League of Nations imposed sanctions against Italy in connection with the startItalo-Ethiopian War. The sanctions did not have the expected effect, since Italy was already ready for "autarky". Moreover, Mussolini even "exacerbated" these sanctions by imposing a strict ban on the import of many consumer goods. The Italians supported the campaign to support domestic producers under the slogan " I prefer Italian products» ( ital. Preferite il Prodotto Italiano). In May 1935, the government called on citizens to hand over all their securities of other states to the Bank of Italy. And although July 15, 1936 economic sanctions against Italy were lifted, the country's course towards economic self-sufficiency continued.
The corporatist model, combined with Keynesian methods of demand management, operated in Italy throughout the 1930s. TO 1939 the share of state enterprises in the economy in Italy was the highest in the world compared to other countries with market economies. However, then the foreign policy ambitions of the Nazis led to the expansion of military activity outside the country. July 17, 1936 began Spanish Civil Warin which Mussolini sided Franco against the left forces and began to supply him with weapons and troops.
Signing September 27, 1940 Tripartite Pact, which included Italy in the number Axis countries led to an increase in military spending. The need to reorganize the country's economic management on a military footing caused irreversible damage to the corporatist model: now the government had to force industrialists to finance what they perceived as a disaster. But the economy functioned; its collapse came only afterAnglo-American landing in Italy, which entailed the destruction of the political, and then the economic infrastructure. Until the endSecond World WarItaly's economy was destroyed, and in 1944 per capita income fell to the level of the beginning of the 20th century.
Political and economic doctrines of Nazi Germany
Main articles: Economy of the Third Reich , Reinhardt programReferring to a number of statements by Hitler himself and documents NSDAP , it is sometimes believed that in Germany, with Hitler economic doctrines were neglected. Indeed, at the dawn of German fascism, in 1922 Hitler wrote: "world history teaches us that no man has yet become great thanks to the economy, but very many have suffered because of it," and concluded that "the economy is something of little importance." Arguing that Hitler and his associates strongly idealized history, focusing on "a small group of people armed with higher ideals" as its creators, G. Turner believes that they ignored all economic problems, allegedly because they were "too material" for them. In confirmation, the American scholar quotes Hitler, who blamed all his predecessors up to Bismarck for "subordinating the nation to materialism", emphasizing more on peaceful economic development than on military expansion. From this, Turner concludes that German fascism did not have a clearly defined economic program. However, before 1933 it is expedient to speak not about the economic doctrines of German fascism, but only about policy statements designed for the political situation and not tested by time - in contrast to Italy, where Mussolini, being in power since 1922 , repeatedly changed not only the set of slogans, but also the real economic course.
Appeals " Programs "25 points"”: against unearned and easy income (paragraph 11), for the confiscation of the results of personal enrichment in the war (paragraph 12) and the nationalization of trusts and joint-stock companies(p. 13), for the participation of workers in the profits of large commercial enterprises (p. 14), decent pensions (p. 15), for land reform and gratuitous confiscation of land for public needs, etc. were addressed only to the voters of 1920, when this program was drawn up. IN 1924 its co-author, Gottfried Feder , developed a new draft program, in 39 points, where something was strengthened, something was replaced, and a lot was added. But after 1925 Hitler stopped discussing the party program, saying that it was "unshakable." He never brought it up for public discussion, did not refer to its provisions, but in “ Mein Kampf "He only casually mentioned her:" the so-called. movement program.
Before coming to power, the comparisons that Hitler made with the views of his main opponents in the German political arena -social democrats and communists also depended on the situation. On May Day 1927 The Fuhrer declared: "We are socialists, we are enemies of the economic system of capitalism." But after that, Hitler systematically alienated himself from identification with Marxists: “we have nothing to do with Marxist socialism”, “Marxism is against private property, but real [national] socialism is not”, etc. Still later, he exclaimed: “Socialism? The word itself is unfortunate... What is socialism, in fact? If a person has something for food and something for pleasure - this is socialism.
His arguments about the causes of the “failure” of social democracy are also noteworthy. “National socialism - that's what Marxism could become if it discarded all crazy ideas about democracy ... Why socialize banks and factories? We socialize human souls." March 24, 1942 in a private conversation, Hitler said that he "absolutely insists on the protection of private property" and for the encouragement of private enterprise initiative. In another conversation, he spoke in favor of the state having the authority to regulate the use of private property for the benefit of the people. And finally, one day he said that "The main feature of our economic theory is that we have no theory." This phrase G.-I. Brown interprets seriously as follows: "Hitler clearly believed that the lack of a precise economic program was one of the prerequisites for the strength of the Nazi Party."
Reasoning about social darwinismas one of the foundationsHitler's political views, O natural selectionas the leading force in the development of a society of human individuals, about the merciless struggle between countries and races , in which a strong centralized state, led by supermen, etc., must win.- all this, focusing on the individual traits of Hitler, leads the conversation away from the question: on what conceptual foundations did the German economy provide such a potential for 12 years, which was only possible to cope with by the collective efforts of all the largest states of the world, regardless of their ideological and political disagreements.
1933-1939
Becoming Reich Chancellor in 1933, Hitler already on March 17 returned to the presidency Reichsbank Hjalmar Mine - at that time the main representative of the AmericanJ.P. Morgan Financial Corporation. Simultaneously Schacht's predecessor at the Reichsbank (1930–33) and former Chancellor (1925–26) Hans Luther (represented Germany in 1924 when discussing Dawes plan ) was sent as ambassador to USA .
Former party affiliation of both (Shakht was once a member NDP, Luther - NDP ) was not of decisive importance either for the country's economic course or for organizing external cash flows to provide the German economy with monetary resources. From the consequencesworld economic crisisboth Luther and, at first, Schacht defended the German economy by methods that were later called Keynesian. M. Kalecki et al. designated this variety by the term "militaristic Keynesianism».
The state went on a large-scalepublic building costswhich were covered bydeficit financing from the budget. So, for example, hundreds of kilometers of famous German autobahns. First Autobahn Cologne-Bonn , built by the forces of former unemployed, was opened even before Hitler, August 6, 1932 . But after 1933, when road construction was headed by F. Todt, his organization brought the length of autobahns from 108 km in 1935 to 3736 km V 1940 . Unemployment , reaching at the beginning 1933 30%, began to fall sharply.
The implementation of this policy would have been impossible without strict control over the two components of inflation - the rise in prices at the initiative of the capitalists and the rise in wages at the request of the trade unions. The Nazis banned unions and strikes while enforcing strict price controls. In June 1933 was launched " Reinhardt program”, named after the secretary of state of the Ministry of FinanceFritz Reinhardt(not to be confused with Operation Reinhard"). It was a vast infrastructure project where indirect incentive measures (tax cuts) were used to stimulate direct investment in publicly significant projects - not only autobahns, but also rail and waterways. A by-product of it was an increase in the demand of the population for cars.
All these measures helped to avoid inflation . Economists see the prerequisites for this, in part, in the introduction fiduciary (fiat ) means of circulation. They were issued by the Treasury without the necessary gold coverage from the reserves. Reichsbank.
Soon Y. Shakht was given even broader powers, and in August 1934 he headed the Ministry of Economics. Reinhardt's program was followed by a number of other similar initiatives. From 666 thousand to 1933 the number of construction workers has increased 1936 up to 2 million. IN 1936 the share of military spending in Germany's GNP was 10% - higher than in any other country in Europe. But this figure continued to grow and subsequently. Part of the military spending was strategic government purchases of food and manufactured goods.
1936 turned out to be critical for the German economy: prices for raw materials (the main volume of imports) began to grow, and for finished products (the main volume of exports) to fall. A trade deficit seemed inevitable. However, here Hitler, following Mussolini, set a course for the self-sufficiency of the national economy. However, Germany was more dependent than Italy on the import of raw materials, and therefore the task of complete autarky not set here. Instead, among the trading partners, a group of states was singled out, on which Germany made a political bet. In addition to Italy, these were: Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Greece, Yugoslavia. Trade with them was encouraged (by 1938, more than half of their exports went to Germany), while curtailing with those who were not included in the preferential list - with the exception of England and the USA, the volume and composition of trade with which the Ministry of Economics regulated, focusing on the previously established a system of communications dominated by the interests of the largest I.G. Farben and other German corporations. A differentiated foreign trade policy helped Germany to strengthen its political influence in southern Europe and the Balkans.
In a special area of attention, Schacht singled out the turnover with the United States - a country whose economic interests were oriented by the Americans Dawes and then Jung reparations system, and the interests of whose banks, as ambassador, he carefully guarded in 1933-38 Hans Luther - the predecessor of Schacht in the Reichsbank and Hitler - as Reich Chancellor. The shares of the IG Farbenindustry subsidiary were listed in the US throughout the war, and the Americans received income from them. Shakht developed a mechanism for "fine-tuning" the balance of payments with the United States, assigning a series ofauthorized banks- in particular, J. P. Morgan. These banks maintained private and corporate accounts in dollars of Germans and German companies. At the same time, papers were issued to American firms exporting to Germany ( English scripts), which represented an authorization for the counter-purchase in Germany of goods for the indicated amount. From the same amounts, Americans traveling in Nazi Germany were given traveler's checks .
Organizationally, not only Germany's foreign trade, but also domestic turnover were tied mainly to cartels, monopolies and oligopolies, whose interests the state protected.
Monopolistic price fixing has become the rule for most industries; cartels were formed not only in heavy industry and other highly developed industries ... Cartels and quasi-cartels, large and small, set prices, production quotas and fixed the division of markets, extracting monopoly profits.
- Arthur Schweitzer. Big Business in the Third Reich.
Here, the structure inherited from the time of the military procurement committee of the First World War, which 1919 German militarists carefully recreated under the name "Imperial Union of German Industry". June 19, 1933 it was merged, together with the Federation of Employers' Associations, into a singleImperial Administration of German Industry, dominated by the largest representativesmilitary-industrial complex (MIC) Germany.
Unlike the communists, Hitler did not fight against private property interests, but encouraged them. However, it was not " middle class ”, on whose votes Hitler came to power, and the largest capitalists, to whom a number of high-ranking generals were soon added. The corresponding triangle of economic power (party bosses - big business generals), according to Schweitzer, had already formed by 1938. The ideas of socialism for the middle class, the author believes, were discarded, collective agreements and trade unions were banned. The interests of the monopolies, which received preferential support from the state in comparison with small entrepreneurs, and made super profits, increasingly merged with the interests of the fascist government.. It is noted that the ideas of nationalization at that time in Germany were less popular than in the West.
With the beginning of the seizure of adjacent territories and the transition to direct hostilities, Germany immediately included the resources of the occupied countries in its economic turnover. At the same time (cf. Bakke's plan , "Hunger Plan") for their own survival, these territories were often left below the subsistence level. Even before the war in the systemforced labor labor camps were set up , where "unwanted elements" were sent ( German unzuverlassige elemente): homosexuals, vagabonds, etc. Forced labor was also practiced inpenitentiary system, where under the Nazis, in addition to criminals, they began to en masse communists, jews and some dissenters.
By 1944 between 1/5 and 1/4 of the entire workforce in Germany were foreigners, including civilians and prisoners of war . Hundreds of thousands of Jews Slavs and representatives of other peoples constituted a resource of practically free, slave labor in factories Thyssen, Krupp, IG Farben ; was no exception and Fordwerke - a subsidiary of Ford Motor Company . In fact, there was not a single more or less large industrial or agricultural enterprise where the slave labor of prisoners of war or internees would not be used. In case of successOperation Sea Lionthis contingent was to be replenished by citizens Great Britain .
annexed, occupied territories, as well as countries where the Nazis plantedpuppet regimes, sold raw materials and agricultural products to Germany at minimum prices. In this regard, the goal of the struggle forliving space in the East(German Lebensraum im Osten), put forward by Hitler back in Mein Kampf, gave the German economy tangible results, even despitepartisan movement in the USSR. In the west of Europe, the reduction in the needs of the economies of subject countries was also used in favor of Germany; thus, about 2/3 of the wagon fleet of France in the territory occupied by the Germans was used to transport goods to Germany.
Thus, in the first years of active hostilities, the population of Germany did not feel this in their standard of living. Unlike most countries, Germany practically did not increase the level of taxes, and if in 1941 in Great Britain the income tax reached 23.7%, then in Germany it was only 13.7%. However, after 1942, the share of military spending began to grow, and as the losses of previously occupied territories in the USSR, Germany was forced to restructure its production facilities. Civil production was curtailed; where possible, the production of goods for the army was organized, and military administration was introduced at these enterprises.
Political and economic doctrines of fascist Spain
Unlike Italy and Germany, inWorld War ISpain remained neutral. At first XX century the country became dependent on British and French capital. In 1915, they accounted for 54% and 34.5% of foreign direct investment, respectively. But after the end of the war, Spanish industry lost its favorable situation on the world market, and foreign investors switched to more profitable properties. As a result, the decline in production in a number of industries and the foreign trade deficit led to inflation and rising unemployment. The land question was not resolved either, in connection with which the class of landowners had a certain strength. latifundists and agriculture was backward.Spain also differed in the type of socialist ideas that dominated at the beginning XX century in the masses: in contrast tosocial democracyin Western and Eastern Europe, dominated hereanarcho-syndicalism. Working class the country was weak and few in number; the main mouthpiece of his interests -National Confederation of Labor- formed only in 1911 , while at first covering not the whole country, but only Catalonia . Even later, the left flank of the socialist movement took shape in Spain:First Communist Party (IKP)formed here only 1920 , and by the time of leaving the underground in 1931 KPI consisted of only 800 people.
However, back in 1919 the governmentCount Romanonesadopted in Spain decrees on the 8-hour working day, on old-age insurance and unemployment benefits, thus forestalling the appearance of relevant requirements in the opposition's programs. By 1921, the process of developing land, as well as other democratic reforms, which continued into cortes , began to meet the resistance of the latifundists, who demanded the creation of a "firm hand" government. On March 8, 1921, three Catalan anarchists shot and killed the President of the Council of Ministers. E. Dato . Democratic processes were interrupted; taken a few months laterAdventure in Morocco turned around defeat of the Spanish army at Anval, which was followed by a powerful public protest, supported by all parties of the anti-monarchist opposition. Putsch September 13, 1923 General M. Primo de Riverawas, in the words of D. Ratcliffe, only "an attempt to stop the clock of the political history of Spain."
Tests.
Test #1
1. What is the subject of economic policy as a science
a) a set of measures and restrictions of a legal nature aimed at creating conditions for the effective interaction of independent economic entities;
b) targeted creation of framework conditions in a market economy and targeted impact on economic processes;
c) the behavior of the state in the economy, which is designed to designate and express the total will of society and fulfill it in the decisions and actions of the government that characterize economic processes ;
d) all of the above.
2. Rules of law policy governing economic activity, economic order policy, integration and foreign policy, economic impact policy, growth policy and structural policy, protection policy environment, - This:
a) economic policy instruments;
b) areas of economic policy;
c) tasks of economic policy;
d) strategic starting points.
3. Which of the listed functions are not the tasks of the allocation policy
a) state orders to private business and own state production activities;
b) legal proceedings and the exercise of power;
c) the distribution of resources between different areas in the private sector through subsidies, transfers, taxes and fees;
d) all of the above are the tasks of the allocation policy.
4. Which of the provided economic orders are not considered in the theory of V. Eucken
etc.................